The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Geology of Button Bay State Park
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: The Geology of Button Bay State Park
Author: Harry W. Dodge
Release date: January 25, 2020 [eBook #61230]
Most recently updated: October 17, 2024
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GEOLOGY OF BUTTON BAY STATE PARK ***
[Illustration: Cover Picture: Selected “buttons” from the clay bank
along the beach at Button Bay State Park. (×0.8).]
THE GEOLOGY OF
BUTTON BAY STATE PARK
_By_
HARRY W. DODGE, JR.
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND PARKS
Perry H. Merrill, _Director_
VERMONT DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT
VERMONT GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Charles G. Doll, _State Geologist_
1962
THE GEOLOGY OF
BUTTON BAY STATE PARK
_By_
Harry W. Dodge, Jr.
INTRODUCTION
Button Bay State Park is located on the eastern shore of Lake Champlain
with lake frontage on Button Bay (see maps, Figs. 1 and 2). This Vermont
State Park is reached from the nearest large town, Vergennes, by
proceeding southwest, toward Addison, on State Route 22A for .25 miles
beyond the bridge over Otter Creek, thence, right on the Basin
Harbor-Panton road for another 1.4 miles to the first road entering from
the right. Turn right on this, the Basin Harbor road, and proceed for
4.5 miles, thence, left for 1.4 miles to Button Bay State Park (see map,
Fig. 2, note arrows). A more direct road is planned to connect the Basin
Harbor Road with the Park, however, this route has still not been
completed.
Prior to its present name, Button Bay, the “sickle-shaped bay” on which
Button Bay State Park is located was termed _Button Mould Bay_[1]. In
“The Journal of William Gilliland” which is found in the “Pioneer
History of the Champlain Valley” by Winslow C. Watson, Albany, 1863, and
under the date of September 7, 1765, is found an entry which speaks of
“his (Gilliland) overtaking ‘_the Governors and other gentlemen_’[2] at
Button Mould Bay, and going aboard their sloop.”
A book of charts by Captain William Chambers contains one entitled “Baye
du Roche Fendue (Split-Rock Bay) and the soundings taken in August
1779.” At the upper corner of the chart is the name “Button Mould Bay.”
The first appearance of the shortened version, Button Bay, seems to be
in Whitelaw’s map of 1796 which was used as the frontispiece of the
Census volume, “Heads of Families, Vermont, 1800.”
[Illustration: _FIGURE 1_
MAP OF WEST-CENTRAL VERMONT AND EASTERN NEW YORK]
[Illustration: _FIGURE 2_]
Why the name Button Bay? H. M. Seely (1910, p. 274)[3] when discussing
the shoreline of this bay states, “Besides shells, _concretions_[4],
some of strange imitative forms (many shaped like animals), are loosened
from the clay.” He goes on to say that a “form particularly abundant in
the banks of the bay (and on the beach) has the shape and size of a
turned wood button-mold (mold is commonly spelled ‘mould’ by the
British), a disc with a hole in the center, plane (flat) on one side and
convex on the other” (see Fig. 3 and cover picture). The abundance of
these button mold-shaped concretions obviously led to the older name,
Button Mould Bay which was later shortened to Button Bay.
THE GEOLOGY OF BUTTON BAY STATE PARK
If the visitor confines his wanderings to the State Park the most
conspicuous geological features, or clues to the Park’s past history,
are concentrated in the clay banks and adjacent beach which border Lake
Champlain (see Fig. 4). The clays which cover the entire Park record
thousands of years of rather recent events, _geologically speaking_[5],
which took place in the Champlain Valley. These clays also record a very
significant phase in the development of present Lake Champlain. Before
discussing the clays it will be necessary to outline some of the
geological events which preceded the deposition of the clays, that is,
some of those events which took place as the last glacial ice lobe
slowly retreated up the Champlain Valley and into Canada. The author has
borrowed heavily from an article by Donald H. Chapman entitled
“Late-Glacial and Post-glacial History of the Champlain Valley” which
was published in the 1941-1942 “Report of the State Geologist on the
Mineral Industries and Geology of Vermont, twenty-third of (the)
Series.”
[Illustration: Figure 3. Water-worn concretions seen on the beach of
Button Bay State Park. The button-mold shape of some concretions led
to the incorporation of the word “Button” in the name Button Bay
(Originally, Button-Mould Bay). The chisel portion of the Alpine ice
ax head is about 5 inches long.]
During the final retreat of the last ice sheet to invade the New England
states (some 11,000 to 12,000 years ago) an ice lobe, which occupied the
Hudson-Champlain Valley, slowly wasted northward toward the Canadian
border. Melt-water derived from the melting glacial ice together with
atmospheric water (rain and snow) formed a succession of lakes dammed on
the north by the glacial ice. These lakes emptied to the south through
the Hudson Valley. This succession of lakes and intermediate lake stages
will be discussed in the following paragraphs.
[Illustration: Figure 4. View of beach, Button Bay State Park,
looking toward the southeast. The beach demonstrates several
water-level and storm-level debris lines. Note the conspicuous lack
of sand on this “clay” beach.]
The oldest lake recognized by the geologists is termed “Lake Albany” and
was confined to the Hudson Valley. At this time the area of present-day
Lake Champlain, north of the Hudson Valley, was still covered by glacial
ice which was slowly melting as the general regional climate throughout
New England became warmer and warmer. Soon the whole Hudson Valley
region began to _rise_[6] out from beneath the lake waters and “Lake
Albany” shallowed. Eventually a rock ledge emerged just south of
Schuylerville, New York (actually at Coveville, New York) over which the
waters from a new lake, Lake Vermont, began to flow.
Lake Vermont, with its rock ledge dam at Coveville, began to expand
northward as the ice front retreated up the Champlain Valley. Several
distinct stages in its development are now recognized in _features_[7]
demonstrating past lake levels which are abundantly displayed close to
Button Bay State Park. The “lake-level indicators” or features tell us,
in addition to the number of distinct lake stages in a given area,
something about past earth movements. A “line of
lake-level-_elevation_”[8] is drawn through those features outlining
each past lake or lake stage followed by a comparison of each line with
those lines constructed for older and younger lakes or lake stages. If,
for any two lake-level lines compared, these lines are not parallel, it
can be assumed that the earth’s crust was tilted during the time between
the formation of their lake-level features. This idea of tilting of the
earth’s surface, which is supported through the study of successive lake
levels, has proven the key to the present status of Lake Champlain.
At the beginning of its history Lake Vermont emptied to the south
through an outlet channel located in the vicinity of Coveville, New York
(see map, Fig. 5A). This stage in the development of Lake Vermont, often
referred to as the Coveville Stage, saw lake waters fill the Champlain
Valley from the Green Mountains on the east to a position west of the
present New York-Lake Champlain shoreline. Such Vermont towns as
Middlebury, Vergennes, Hinesburg, Burlington and Colchester would have
been submerged beneath the lake waters (see map, Fig. 5B). Certain high
areas such as Mount Philo, Pease Mountain and Cobble Hill show
lake-level features along their sides which prove that these areas were
islands rising above the level of this past lake. If you visit Mt. Philo
State Park, located approximately 11 miles north of Vergennes, one of
these lake-level features, a wave-cut terrace, can be seen at an
elevation of 545 feet and on the south side of the hill (at the level of
the second reverse turn in your trip to the _summit area_).[9]
[Illustration: _FIGURE 5_
_EARLY COVEVILLE_ _MAXIMUM COVEVILLE_]
[Illustration: Figure 6. Looking west from the top of Mount Philo
State Park. The Adirondack Mountains are on the skyline, Lake
Champlain in middle background and the Champlain Lowlands stretch
from Lake Champlain to the base of Mount Philo.]
[Illustration: _FIGURE 7_
_FORT ANN MAXIMUM_ _MARINE MAXIMUM_]
Shortly after Coveville Lake Vermont reached its maximum size (see map,
Fig. 5B), a southern gorge-outlet was formed at an elevation lower than
the previous Coveville outlet in the vicinity of Fort Ann, New York
(Fort Ann is located approximately 8 miles south of the present southern
extremity of Lake Champlain). The level of Lake Vermont’s water dropped
to the new Fort Ann Stage (see map, Fig. 7A). Evidence for this new lake
level is seen on the slopes of Mt. Philo, Snake Mountain and Cobble
Hill. These lake-level features are parallel to and found 100 feet below
those of the Coveville Stage. These parallel features, then, indicate
that very little, if any, tilting of the earth’s crust had taken place
between the Coveville and Fort Ann lake stages.
[Illustration: Figure 8. Beach and clay banks exposed along the Lake
Champlain portion of Button Bay State Park. This view is toward the
northwest and includes a major portion of the Park’s lake frontage.
Photo by Robert B. Williams.]
This Champlain ice lobe continued to melt and retreat toward the
Canadian border and beyond. As the glacial front approached the St.
Lawrence valley, fresh water from Lake Vermont began to seep through the
retreating ice lobe and into the marine waters which filled the St.
Lawrence area. Several shoreline (lake-level) features are found at
different elevations below the Fort Ann Stage of Lake Vermont and attest
to a slow lowering of the lake level by the escape of fresh water to the
north.
The conspicuous clays of Button Bay State Park were deposited during the
next episode in the history of the Champlain Valley, a development
heralded by continued retreat of the ice lobe and contact with the St.
Lawrence marine waters. Let’s take a look at the clays so well displayed
along the Button Bay State Park beach and see if we can piece together
their history.
THE CLAYS OF BUTTON BAY STATE PARK
The best location in the park for a good look at the clays which cover
the entire Park area is along the lake beach (see Figs. 4 and 8). The
bank averages 23 feet in height measured from the beach to the top of
the bank. The width of the beach varies seasonally and during storms as
the water level of Lake Champlain fluctuates (see Figs. 4 and 8). A walk
along the beach will reveal some interesting facts about the composition
of the beach and the adjacent clay banks.
One cannot help observing the scarcity of _sand_[10] on the beach. The
only adjacent material to build this beach is clay, which here contains
a small quantity of sand and some concretions containing lime. The
sickle shape of Button Bay keeps most foreign sand from the beach. The
small patches of sand present soon give way to _blue clay_[11] which, in
many places, forms the base of the beach. This blue clay can also be
seen in the base of the bank in the southern portion of the Park, where
it underlies and is therefore older than the _brown clay_.[12]
Actually very little of the blue clay is exposed in the Park. From other
locations along the shore of Lake Champlain and in the more inland areas
of the Champlain Lowlands geologists have found many clues to help our
understanding of its history.
[Illustration: Figure 9A. View of the Brown Clay at the base of the
clay-cliff, Button Bay State Park. For scale, note the small
ballpoint pen resting on top of ledge (left of center). A close-up
view of this ledge (pen in same location) is seen in Figure 10.]
[Illustration: Figure 9B. Close-up view showing general
characteristics of the Brown Clay. Notice the vertical cracks in the
clay. These cracks or joints are very common in the clays of this
State Park.]
In August 1849 the incomplete skeleton of a _whale_[13] was found in a
railroad cut being excavated for the Rutland and Burlington Railroad.
This cut was located approximately 12 miles south of Burlington and a
mile east of Lake Champlain. The significant fact about this “find” is
that these bones were found in the same type of blue clay that occurs at
the beach in Button Bay State Park. Clam and oyster shells (Pelecypods)
were found in association with the whale bones. These _pelecypod
shells_[14] and the whale bones show that these animals lived and died
in cold marine waters. Lake Champlain today is a fresh-water lake and
the fish and other organisms in it are those of fresh, not salty water.
Yet the blue clays (and we are soon to learn, the brown clays) hold
evidence proving the existence of sea water in an area where a
fresh-water lake is found today. Can this be explained?
The brown clay forms most of the Park’s clay banks (see Figs. 9A and 9B
). It can be examined easily by the visitor. The bank is composed of
clay and variable amounts of _fine sand_[15] in thin lens-shaped bodies.
The hard dry outer clay, if rain has not just fallen, of the upper 15
feet of the bank appears light brown or tan-white and commonly contains
interspersed white and blue streaks. In the section of the bank which
was the object of detailed study, two conspicuous _convoluted beds_[16]
were found, one 5 feet above the beach, the other nearly 2 feet above
the first.
Shells of _pelecypods_[17] occur at two and perhaps three levels within
the bank. They can be seen easily in many slumped clay bodies along the
beach (see Fig. 10, in which the shells are mainly _Macoma_ and
_Saxicava_). These shells once belonged to living animals whose very
close relatives and identical younger generations are found living today
in cold Arctic waters. Brown clays were deposited in a marine Champlain
Sea. How did these marine waters get into the Champlain Valley?
[Illustration: Figure 10. Close-up view showing the pelecypod (clam)
shells which occur within the Brown Clays. Note small Ballpoint pen
for scale. These shells tell us of the marine origin for these
clays. The pelecypods here are _Saxicava_ and _Macoma_.]
Remember from the previous discussion of Lake Vermont that as the
Champlain ice lobe retreated into Canada, fresh water from Lake Vermont
began to seep through the ice lobe into the St. Lawrence Valley. This
seepage caused a gradual lowering of the Lake Vermont water-level until
the lake reached a stage lower than the marine waters of the St.
Lawrence Sea. Soon the sea water began to flood Lake Vermont and true
marine conditions were reached. These marine waters reached as far south
as Whitehall, New York, which is located near the southern end of
present-day Lake Champlain.
The maximum area covered by the Champlain Sea did not equal the greatest
size attained by the fresh waters of Lake Vermont. For instance, the sea
did not extend as far east as the Green Mountains except in the very
northernmost region of Vermont. In the vicinity of Button Bay State Park
these waters extended less than a mile east of Vergennes, and the towns
of Middlebury, Hinesburg and Charlotte would have been entirely above
water (see map, Fig. 7B).
It has been postulated that marine waters extended throughout the length
of the Champlain Valley and into the Hudson Valley, forming a continuous
strip of marine water from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Atlantic
Ocean at the mouth of the Hudson River. If this were true, New England
would have been an island only a few years ago (geologically speaking).
The weight of evidence available today does not support the prior
existence of this connecting ribbon of sea water. Today Lake Champlain
contains fresh water again, and the marine conditions have retreated
back into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. What happened to permit a return to
fresh water conditions?
The lakes and lake-stages discussed are known from the presence of
various shoreline features, most of which are now “high and dry.” Each
lake or lake-stage has its own set of lake-level features. An
interesting fact emerges from a study of any one former lake. The
present elevation above sea level of delimiting lake-level features is
_not_ the same throughout. To explain this more fully, the present
elevation of those features formed when the Champlain Sea was at its
maximum extent will be examined.
At Shelburne Falls the present elevation of these features is 300 feet,
at St. Albans 440 feet, and at Roxton, Quebec, 552 feet. It will be
noted that proceeding from south (Shelburne Falls) to north (Roxton) a
difference of over 250 feet is found between features formed at an
identical time in the past. The water in any lake is practically level.
It therefore follows that the present 300, 440 and 552 foot elevations
of the shoreline features are the result of subsequent tilting of the
earth’s surface. Perhaps the following reference to the water level of
present Lake Champlain will help in your understanding of this tilting.
The present-day average level of the water in Lake Champlain is about 92
feet above the level of the Atlantic Ocean. This water-level elevation
is constant throughout the extent of Lake Champlain and _is not_, say,
92 feet at Button Bay and 192 feet at Burlington. Again, the only way
that features demonstrating past lake margins or levels could, for any
one lake or lake-stage, now exist at different elevations would be if
some earth movements took place after the formation of the features,
resulting in a change from their original elevations.
The earth’s crust has been tilted, higher in the north than in the
south, during recent times. This tilting provides the clue to the
formation of present-day Lake Champlain. Major tilting took place after
the maximum marine invasion. Tilting continued, at a decreasing rate,
perhaps, to the present day. This tilting, with greater relative rise in
the northwest, eventually reached a point where marine waters were
excluded from the Champlain Basin.
Fresh water slowly diluted the salty marine water. The lake gathered
more and more fresh water through rain and melting snow, and a new
outlet formed in the north, in the approximate location of the present
Richelieu River. The area of Lake Champlain slowly increased to its
present size, and the clays which once formed lake and sea bottom became
the “hard earth” of the Champlain Lowlands. Continued tilting caused
flooding of the streams, especially in the southern portion of Lake
Champlain, such as the now swampy Otter Creek and its tributary Dead
Creek (see map, Fig. 2). This concludes the story of the Park clays.
From the rocks which crop out within a short walking distance of Button
Bay State Park a much older segment of geologic history can be studied.
THE OLDER ROCKS
The rocks which underlie Button Bay State Park can be seen along the
small creek which is located just south of the Park. It is suggested
that the visitor walk southward (to the right if approaching the road
from the lake front) along the main park road until the first culvert
beneath the road is reached. Looking down the creekbed toward the lake,
one can readily see the older rocks (see A, Figure 11). _Fossils_[18]
are found in these tilted rocks which tilt or dip toward the northeast
and “strike” northwestward. Fossils date the rocks underlying Button Bay
State Park as Middle _Ordovician_.[19] The most abundant fossil is a
trilobite, _Triarthrus_, but, even this ancient _arthropod_[20] is not
easily found in these limestones and limy shales. A sketch of
_Triarthrus_ (that portion found fossilized) appears in Plate 1. These
rocks containing _Triarthrus beckii_ belong to the Stony Point formation
and are of late Sherman Fall or Denmarkian age.
One of the jobs of the geologist is to reconstruct the paleogeography
(ancient geography) of a region. The different kinds of rocks present
and their distribution patterns, together with the types of fossil
plants and animals found, tell the geologist of past lands and seas,
warm and cold climates. The rocks of the Stony Point formation (the
rocks which underlie most of the Park) tell of warm marine waters, a
past sea, bordered by relatively low land areas. The fossils contained
in the Stony Point formation attest to the presence of relatively
shallow marine waters. The fact that these Ordovician rocks are tilted
and broken by faults proves that _major earth movements_[21] took place
sometime after their lithification.
[Illustration: _PLATE 1_]
1A, B, C; _Maclurites magnus_ Lesueur (X 0.5). Lower, upper and side
views. Crown Point limestone. GASTROPOD (snail).
2; _Triarthrus beckii_ Green (X 3). Top view of central part of head
region. Stony Point shale. TRILOBITE.
3; _Saxicava_ (X 3). Pleistocene marine clays. PELECYPOD.
4; _Macoma_ (X 3). Pleistocene marine clays. PELECYPOD.
5A, B; _Rhinidictya_ (X 9 and X 1). Orwell limestone. BRYOZOAN.
6A, B, C: _Cryptolithus tesselatus_ Green (X 2). Top, side and front
views. Glens Falls limestone. TRILOBITE.
7; _Rafinesquina._ Internal view. Orwell and Glens Falls limestones.
BRACHIOPOD.
[Illustration: _FIGURE 11_
GEOLOGIC MAP
OLDER ROCKS]
(fault)
CROWN POINT LIMESTONE
CHAZY (VALCOUR?) (Clay covered in most areas)
ORWELL LIMESTONE (clay covered)
GLENS FALLS LIMESTONE (clay covered in most areas)
(fault)
STONY POINT FORMATION (clay covered in most areas)
GEOLOGY NORTH OF PARK BOUNDARY ADAPTED FROM CHARLES W. WELBY—1961
From the north boundary of the Park and along the Lake Champlain
shoreline older and older Ordovician rocks are _encountered_.[22] The
rocks (see geologic map, Fig. 11), primarily tilted marine limestones,
display a variety of fossils, some of which are illustrated in Plate 1.
Figure 12 is a view of the west side of Button Island showing an 18-inch
thick reefy zone in the Orwell limestone. The reefy zone is composed
largely of tumbled heads of colonial corals and stromatoporoids. A
selected list of reference books and articles, some of which contain
plates picturing Ordovician fossils, is found at the end of this
section.
Ordovician and older rocks were lifted, folded and faulted during the
Taconic Disturbance. Dramatic evidence for this period of crustal
instability is seen in the Champlain Thrust, a major series of faults
which can be seen east of Button Bay State Park. The evidence for such a
fault system, which is more fully discussed in another pamphlet, is
readily seen on Mount Philo where older Cambrian rocks have overridden
(been thrust over) younger Ordovician ones.
As time passed in the Button Bay region younger and younger sediments
were deposited over the top of folded and eroded Ordovician rocks. These
sediments became rock and in turn slowly broke into fragments which were
transported to other areas where they were deposited again as sediments.
The glaciers passed over, leaving their rock debris behind as they
wasted northward. Marine clays were slowly deposited from the waters of
the Champlain Sea. Today only the marine clays resting on the beveled
edges of Middle Ordovician rocks can be seen in the Park.
The history of the earth is open for all to read. Button Bay State Park
can tell us only the history which is recorded in its clays and
underlying rocks. As we have seen, there are certain giant geologic time
gaps in the Park area, but many of these do not exist in other places
and in other Parks. If this pamphlet has stimulated an interest in
filling in these time gaps through your study of rocks in other places,
then it has fulfilled its purpose. The present interest in Space demands
a good long look at the Planet Earth. Good Hunting!
[Illustration: Figure 12. Bedded Orwell limestone on open-lake side
of Button Island, showing patches of stromatoporoids and colonial
corals (white areas). Photo by C. W. Welby.]
SUGGESTED READING
_Historical Geology_, by Carl O. Dunbar, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1960. Good general treatment of what the rocks can and do
tell geologists about the history of the Earth.
_Handbook of Paleontology for Beginners and Amateurs_, Part 1, The
Fossils, by Winifred Goldring, New York State Museum Handbook 9
(obtainable from: Paleontological Research Institution, 190
Dearborn Place, Ithaca, N. Y.).
_Fossils, An Introduction to Prehistoric Life_, by W. H. Matthews III,
1962, Barnes and Noble, Inc., New York. Earth history and
paleontology, a general guide for the amateur collector.
_Bedrock Geology of the Central Champlain Valley of Vermont_, by Charles
W. Welby, 1961. Vermont Geological Survey Bulletin 14. Standard
work for the geology in the region of Button Bay State Park.
_Paleontology of the Champlain Basin in Vermont_, by C. W. Welby,
Vermont Geology Series, Vermont Geological Survey. A treatise on
the paleontology of the Champlain Basin designed for the amateur.
In press.
_Index Fossils of North America_, by H. W. Shimer and R. R. Shrock,
1944, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. Contains many plates
depicting several of the fossils found in and adjacent to Button
Bay State Park.
Footnotes
[1]Most of the information for this section was graciously supplied by
Clara E. Follette, Librarian and Museum Director, Vermont Historical
Society, Montpelier, Vermont, in a letter to the author dated April
26, 1961.
[2]“The governors (and other gentlemen) appear to have included Sir
Henry Moore, Governor of New York, General Carleton, Governor of
Quebec, Brig. General Philip Schuyler (and Adolphus Benzel, map
maker). The activities of these persons on the lake at that time
were evidently concerned with making observations, primarily to
determine boundaries.”
[3]Seely, H. M., 1910, Preliminary Report of the Geology of Addison
County; Vermont State Geologist, 7th Biennial Report, p. 257-315.
[4]Concretions consist of concentrations of certain chemical elements
and compounds into regular or irregular masses. Many times the
center of a concretion consists of a definite nucleus such as a
grain of sand or shell fragment. For a general idea of the size and
shape of the concretions seen along the Button Bay State Park beach
see Fig. 3 and cover picture.
[5]These clays were deposited from marine waters which flooded the
Champlain Valley after the final retreat of the glaciers which
completely covered New England during the “Great Ice Age” or
Pleistocene Epoch. The Pleistocene Epoch began approximately one
million years ago and if the age of the Earth is considered to be
five billion (5,000 million) years, then, the clays do record recent
geologic history.
[6]As the weight of the ice was removed from the Hudson Valley region
the earth’s crust, in way of adjustment to this removal of weight,
slowly began to rise. Some geologists doubt whether the removal of
ice weight alone can account for the crustal rise and propose other
internal forces as partly or wholly responsible. The fact remains
that the earth’s crust did rise in this area.
[7]As the ice retreated, a succession of lakes formed in the Champlain
Valley. Each lake had a level waterline during its history and
certain lakeshore features formed, as they do in any present-day
lake, with respect to each past level water-line. For example,
ridges of sand and gravel were heaped along the shoreline by lake
waves. Wave-cut and wave-built flat areas or terraces were formed
along the margins of lakes or along the sides of islands within a
lake. Streams entering a lake built deltas by depositing materials
it had carried down from the surrounding highlands.
[8]Elevation is measured in feet above the mean sea level of today, with
mean sea level being zero feet.
[9]A most impressive view can be gained from any one of the several
lookout points at the summit level of Mt. Philo. Looking to the
west, toward Lake Champlain, and south in the direction of Vergennes
and Button Bay State Park, a three dimensional view of an old lake
(Lake Vermont) can be seen. In this view the present Lake Champlain
Lowlands represent the old lake bottom and the numerous hills rising
above this Lowland were once islands or near-islands which dotted
the surface of the lake. It takes very little imagination to place
yourself on the “island of Mt. Philo” and to visualize a boat tied
to a dock just below the rocky cliffs on which you stand. A trip to
Mt. Philo with its spectacular view of the Champlain Lowlands (see
Fig. 6) is recommended.
[10]One word of caution, the Park authorities may import sand from other
areas of Vermont to improve the swimming facilities along the beach.
In this case, the abundant sand on the beach will not constitute the
“natural beach composition” for Button Bay State Park.
[11]The blue color is due to the presence of ferrous iron (bivalent
iron) together with iron compounds in which iron has its higher
chemical valence (ferric iron). This ferrous iron demands a
chemically reducing environment for its formation and indicates that
the clays were deposited in a shallow sea or that they remained for
some time beneath a stable water-table. They contained a fair
quantity of decaying organic material.
[12]The brown color is due to the presence of the ferric hydroxide,
goethite (HFeO₂).
[13]This fossil whale is scientifically known as _Delphinapterus
vermontanus_ (_Thompson_).
[14]The pelecypods found are scientifically known as _Macoma
groenlandica_ and _Saxicava rugosa_.
[15]The size limits of sand lie between 2mm in diameter (largest) and
¹/₁₆mm in diameter (smallest). Two millimeters (mm) equals
approximately ²/₂₅ inches. Fine sand would fall between ¼mm and ⅛mm
in diameter.
[16]Convolute beds show their layers thrown into a series of folds (some
quite irregular) which result from the pressing weight of overlying
sediments on highly plastic layers beneath. Some feel that these
folds were the result of actual flowage of the layers in the
direction of their tilt, and others credit the distorted bedding to
the pressing weight of large boulders. These dragged across the
layers while still frozen to overriding glacial ice.
[17]The author noted both _Macoma groenlandica_ and _Saxicava rugosa_
(see Fig. 10 and Plate 1, Sketches 3 and 4).
[18]Fossils are the preserved evidence of past life (animal or plant) as
found in rocks or sediments, for example, the clams found in the
clays. They may be direct evidence, such as the actual shells or
mineralogically replaced shells of long-dead animals; or indirect
evidence, such as the tracks or trails of animals now preserved in
rocks.
[19]Geologic time is divided into four Eras which are designated from
oldest to youngest: Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
Each of these Eras is divided into geologic Periods of time. The
Ordovician Period is next to the oldest Period of the Paleozoic Era.
This Period began some 420 million years ago, and ended
approximately 360 million years ago.
[20]Present Arthropods include the insects, spiders and crabs.
Arthropods, which are invertebrate animals (without backbones), are
characterized by jointed legs, chitinous outer covering and
segmented body parts. Trilobites were very numerous in the early
Paleozoic seas, but became extinct before the end of that Era.
[21]The folding and the faulting of the Ordovician rocks took place
sometime between the closing phases of the Ordovician Period and the
beginning of late Silurian time (between 360 and 330 million years
ago). Usually these earth movements are ascribed to the Taconic
Disturbance which took place at the end of the Ordovician Period.
[22]A walk along the beach in the direction of Button Island or “sickle
point” (west and then south from the northern boundary of the Park)
traverses the following geologic formations: the Glens Falls
limestone which can be seen on Ship Point (actually an island off
the northern end of the Park); the Orwell limestone, seen on Button
Island; the Valcour formation which makes up “sickle point”; and the
Crown Point limestone which is found on the Basin Harbor-side of
“sickle point.” These rock units belong to the Chazyan Stage (Crown
Point limestone and Valcour formation) and the next younger
Mohawkian Stage (Orwell and Glens Falls limestones) of the Middle
Ordovician Champlainian Series.
Transcriber’s Notes
—Silently corrected a few typos.
—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
is public-domain in the country of publication.
—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
_underscores_.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GEOLOGY OF BUTTON BAY STATE PARK ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.
START: FULL LICENSE
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation.”
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
works.
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
receipt of the work.
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.