The Writer's Desk Book / Being a Reference Volume upon Questions of Punctuation, Capitalization, Spelling, Division of Words, Indention, Spacing, Italics, Abbreviations, Accents, Numerals, Faulty Dict
Date: 2017-01-19T00:00:00+00:00
Keywords: English language -- Orthography and spelling

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Title: The Writer's Desk Book

Author: William Dana Orcutt

Release date: January 19, 2017 [eBook #54025]
Most recently updated: June 25, 2020

Language: English

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THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK

[Available: Transcriber's Note]

OTHER BOOKS BY MR. ORCUTT

GOOD OLD DORCHESTER. A Narrative History

PRINCESS KALLISTO, and other Tales of the Fairies

ROBERT CAVELIER. A Novel
THE FLOWER OF DESTINY. A Novel
THE SPELL. A Novel
THE LEVER. A Novel
THE MOTH. A Novel

The Writer’s

Desk Book

Being a reference volume upon questions of PUNCTUATION · CAPITALIZATION · SPELLING · DIVISION OF WORDS · INDENTION · SPACING ITALICS · ABBREVIATIONS ACCENTS · NUMERALS · FAULTY DICTION · LETTER WRITING · POSTAL REGULATIONS · Etc · Etc

By WILLIAM DANA ORCUTT
for many years Head of The University Press · Cambridge · Now associated with THE PLIMPTON PRESS · Norwood Mass.

New York · FREDERICK·A·STOKES COMPANY · Publishers · MCMXIII

Copyright, 1912, by
FREDERICK A. STOKES CO.
SECOND EDITION

THE · PLIMPTON · PRESS
[W · D · O]
NORWOOD · MASS · U · S · A

CONTENTS

| PAGE

PUNCTUATION

Importance of correct punctuation — punctuation marks and accents — the comma — the semicolon — the colon — the period — the dash — the exclamation — the interrogation — quotation-marks — parentheses — brackets — the apostrophe — the hyphen

1

CAPITALIZATION

Of religious terms — of proper names — of titles — of institutional terms — of references — of ordinals — in general — use of small capitals

20

SPELLING

Importance of adopting an authority — basic rules for numbers and diphthongs — simple rules of orthography — accented words — participles — variable endings — list of variable spellings

31

COMPOUND WORDS

General theory — changes in modern uses — rules and examples

45

DIVISION OF WORDS

Rules and examples

52

INDENTION AND PARAGRAPHING

Various forms used in display — en échelon — irregular — hanging — reverse — lozenge — blocked — definition of the paragraph — its value — kinds of paragraphs — length of paragraph

55

SPACING

General principles — kerned letters — examples of varying spaces

59

ITALIC

Its origin — its uses — when required and when not

62

ABBREVIATIONS

Of dates — of proper names — of titles — commercial — of given names — geographical — miscellaneous — scriptural — monetary signs — mathematical signs — medical signs

65

NUMERALS

History of their evolution — lists

93

CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION

Dr. Campbell’s canons — good usage — list of words and phrases commonly misused

99

LETTER WRITING

Its importance — business, informal, formal — the heading — the address — the salutation — the text — the complimentary close — the signature — the envelope — postal cards — in general — examples

114

POSTAL INFORMATION

Classes of mail — parcel post — wrapping of mail matter — forwarding mail matter — what cannot be mailed — concealed matter — domestic rates — foreign rates — exceptions — foreign parcels post — money order fees — registered mail — special delivery system — postal distances and time from New York City

129

APPENDIX

Standard time — values of foreign coins — comparative thermometers — weights and measures — British weights and measures

142

INDEX | 163

{1}

THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK

{2}

PUNCTUATION MARKS, ACCENTS, ETC.

, | Comma | ¨ | Dieresis
; | Semicolon | ç | Cedilla
: | Colon | | Caret
. | Period | “ ” | Quotation-marks
? | Interrogation | { } | Brace
! | Exclamation | * * * | Ellipsis
( ) | Parentheses | . . . | Ellipsis, leaders
[ ] | Brackets | * | Asterisk
’ | Apostrophe | † | Dagger
- | Hyphen | ‡ | Double dagger
´ | Acute accent | § | Section
` | Grave accent | ‖ | Parallels
^ | Circumflex accent | ¶ | Paragraph
~ | Circumflex or tilde | | Index
| Long or macron | * * * | Asterisks
| Short or breve

The Section-mark is derived from the first letters of the words signum sectionis, meaning sign of the section, the old-fashioned ∫ being used. The paragraph mark ¶ is the roman letter P reversed, with black and white interchanged.

{3}

PUNCTUATION

IN early manuscripts the words followed one another without punctuation points, thus making it difficult for readers to separate the ideas into the same parts as originally intended by the authors. Later they were separated by dots or other marks, which method obtained in the earliest printed volumes. Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1490–1515) and his family were the pioneers in establishing a basis for systematic punctuation. From this chaotic condition definite rules have gradually been evolved for general guidance, but judgment and taste must always be the final guides to correct punctuation. Assistance may be obtained by observing a few simple rules which are based upon the idea that the purpose of every punctuation mark is to indicate to the eye the construction of the sentence in which it occurs.

No one of the various punctuation marks should ever be used exclusively or to excess, for each one has some specific duty which it can perform better than any other. It is always wise to question why, in a given case, a punctuation mark should be put in rather than why it should be left out, for of the two evils an over-punctuated book is the more objectionable. “Close punctuation,” {4} characterized by the use of many commas, prevailed in the English of the eighteenth century and is today the best French usage, but “open punctuation,” which avoids the use of any point not clearly required by the construction, is now favored by the best English writers.

THE COMMA

Dean Alford once wrote, in disgust, “The great enemies to understanding anything in our language are the commas,” and prided himself that in the course of editing the Greek text of the New Testament, he destroyed more than a thousand of these “enemies.” The chief use of this, the smallest degree of separation, is to define the particles and minor clauses of a sentence. It should always be placed inside the quotation-marks when used in connection with them.

The comma is required:

1. Before a conjunction when the preceding word is qualified by an expression which is not intended to qualify the word following the conjunction: e.g., He suddenly started, and fell.

2. Between adjectives and adverbs when not connected by a conjunction: He possessed a calm, exasperating manner; but the comma may be omitted between two adjectives when the idea is close: e.g., A clear cold day. {5}

3. After adjectives and adverbs where three or more are used in succession: e.g., The man possessed a calm, cynical, exasperating manner.

4. In a succession of three or more words where the conjunctive and is used before the last one: e.g., He was tall, thin, and pale.

5. When the word after the conjunction is followed by an expression which qualifies that word alone: e.g.,

’Twas certain he could write, and cipher too.

6. After inverted phrases and clauses: e.g., Discouraged by constant opposition, he resigned his position. Short phrases of similar nature do not require the comma: e.g., Of his intentions there could be no doubt.

7. To separate the adverbs however, now, then, too, perhaps, and indeed from the context when they are used as conjunctions: e.g., This idea, however, had not occurred to him. When these words are used as adverbs, the comma is not required: e.g., It must be done, however contrary it may be to our present advantage.

8. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the context: e.g., His intentions, though at first concealed, became obvious.

9. After the last word of a series composed of several words not connected by conjunctions: e.g., The men, the women, the children even, were up in arms. {6}

10. Between words or phrases in apposition with each other: e.g., I refer to Mr. Taylor, the father of Scientific Management. But when used as a single phrase or a compound name, no comma is required: e.g., The poet Tennyson was born in 1809.

11. Between the name of a person and his title or degree: e.g., Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus; Woodrow Wilson, LL.D.

12. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction: e.g., The door was barricaded, but we managed to open it.

13. Between relative clauses which are explanatory of an antecedent, or which present an additional thought: e.g., Her voice, which was charming in her own drawing-room, was not powerful enough for a public auditorium. But relative clauses which limit the meaning of the antecedent (called restrictive) do not require the comma: e.g., He did that which he was obliged to do.

14. Between two clauses, one of which depends on the other, and usually introduced by if, when, unless, though, where, wherever, etc.: e.g., If we stand together, success is assured. If the clauses are closely connected both in sense and construction, the comma is not required: e.g., William was ten years old when his father moved to Boston.

15. In compound sentences, to separate the co-ordinate clause when closely related and simple in construction: e.g., He was {7} courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors.

16. To indicate an ellipsis: e.g., Price, seventy-five cents.

17. To separate vocative words or expressions from the context: e.g., I leave it, gentlemen, to your sense of right and wrong.

18. Before not, when introducing an antithetical clause: e.g., He devoted his attention to the matter before him, not because he was interested, but because he could not avoid the issue.

19. To separate similar or identical words, even though not required by the sense or grammatical construction: e.g., I tell you, you are wrong.

20. To separate two numbers: e.g., March 1, 1912; In 1911, 869 cases were reported.

21. To separate a quotation or similar brief expression from the preceding part of the sentence: e.g., To quote the proverb, “Look before you leap.”

22. Before the word of, connecting a proper name with residence or position: e.g., Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts.

23. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when informal: e.g., My dear Mother, but, when formal, Gentlemen:

The comma is not required:

1. Before or after conjunctions such as and, or, nor, but, and yet when employed to {8} connect two words belonging to the same part of speech and in the same construction: e.g., Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote. When words are not in pairs, the comma must be used: e.g., Sink, die, or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote.

2. Before or after conjunctions when they are employed to connect two expressions in the same construction used as if belonging to the same part of speech: e.g., The new system of management guarantees accuracy in getting orders under way and promptness in completing them.

3. Before the conjunction too when placed at the end of a sentence: e.g., I hope that you will come too.

4. Where there are two or more words or phrases having a conjunction between each two: e.g., Lest he should be tempted and yield and thus be false.

5. After an adjective that describes or limits another adjective together with the noun following: e.g., He had on a pair of torn gray corduroy breeches.

6. When a pronoun is used with a noun for emphasis: e.g., Lafcadio Hearn himself could not have described the scene more vividly.

THE SEMICOLON

The semicolon is used to indicate a pause or a degree of separation next greater than {9} the comma. Caxton was the first to introduce into English printing the Roman points of punctuation as used in Italy. The comma replaced the unwieldly |, and the colon was an added refinement, but for some unexplained reason he steadfastly opposed the introduction of the semicolon. This mark should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless forming a part of the quotation itself.

Use the semicolon:

1. When the members of a compound sentence are complex in construction or contain commas: e.g., He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, but not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors.

2. To connect successive sentences: e.g., His face never showed an emotion other than that which he wished to have seen there; the mouth was protected by his heavy mustache; his eyes penetrated the object on which they fixed themselves. Shorter sentences should be divided by commas.

3. Between expressions in a series which have a common dependence upon words at the beginning or end of a sentence: e.g., The half-sick man is a nuisance to his entire household: he is not ill enough to accept restraint; he is too ill to be reasonable.

4. To separate passages containing chapters in scriptural references: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16. {10}

THE COLON

The colon is used between clauses of compound sentences, additional clauses without a conjunction, formal quotations, and particulars in apposition with a general term, to mark the necessity of a pause greater than that indicated by the semicolon and less than that indicated by the period. The colon is much less used today than formerly, as modern writers employ shorter and less formal sentences than those of a century ago. It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless included as a part of the quotation itself.

Use the colon:

1. Before as, viz., that is, namely, etc., when these words introduce a series of simple particular terms in apposition with a general term: e.g., There are three genders in Latin: namely, masculine, feminine, and neuter.

2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of two or more clauses divided by semicolons: e.g., Vallie was nervous in his temperment; the Captain was calm and self-contained: Vallie was the product of the city; the Captain was the product of the world.

3. Between a complete sentence and an additional clause enlarging upon the same idea without a conjunction: e.g., Imagination {11} is essential to business success: without imagination, plans for future development cannot intelligently be made.

4. Before particulars definitely stated: e.g., These new duties of the management are grouped under four heads: first, they develop a science for each element of a man’s work, etc.

5. Before formal quotations: e.g., In a recent speech attributed to you by the daily press, you are reported to have used these words: “Good principles follow good habits.”

6. After the formal salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter: e.g., Gentlemen:1 When less formality is desired, the comma may be used: e.g., My dear Mother,

1 See page 117, §§ 2, 3, 4.

7. Between the hours and minutes in indicating time: e.g., 11 : 30 A.M.

8. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16.

9. Between the city of publication and the name of publisher in literary references: e.g., “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” (New York: Harpers).

THE PERIOD

Always place the period inside the quotation-marks and inside the parentheses when parenthetical matter forms an independent sentence and is not a part of the preceding sentence. {12}

Use the period:

1. After every abbreviation.

2. To set off decimal numbers from whole numbers.

3. After every complete sentence unless the sentence is interrogative or exclamatory.

4. To indicate an ellipsis, repeating the mark three or more times separated by spaces: e.g., . . .

Do not use the period:

1. After running-heads.

2. After cut-in side-notes.

3. After centered head-lines.

4. After box-heads in tables.

5. After legends beneath illustrations.

6. After subheads set in separate lines.

7. After date-lines at the top of letters.

8. After signatures at the end of letters.

9. At end of lines in display composition, such as titles,2 blocked headings, etc.

10. After roman numerals, even though they possess the value of ordinals: e.g., Vol. VIII; George V is king of England.

2 First adopted by William Pickering, the London publisher, about 1850.

THE DASH

The dash is more misused and overused than any of the other punctuation marks. The following rules define its proper use: {13}

Use the dash:

1. Whenever the construction or the sense is suddenly changed or suspended: e.g., You cannot believe — but I will not humiliate myself by asking the question.

2. To connect extreme dates in specifying periods of time: e.g., 1912–1918.

3. When the sentence is abruptly terminated: e.g., “If he is alive, I can make him one from this time; and if — if —”

4. To secure rhetorical emphasis: e.g., We are ready — we are more than ready to meet the issue.

5. To define verse references in the Bible: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8; or to indicate page references in a book: e.g., See pp. 21–42.

6. Between short, snappy sentences to increase the speed of the discourse: e.g., Hullo! ho! the whole world’s asleep! — bring out the horses, — grease the wheels, — tie on the mail!

7. Between the subject-matter and its authority.

8. To indicate the omission of letters: e.g., Mrs. B——.

9. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concluding clause: e.g., Courtesy and attention, patience and judgment, accuracy and carefulness — these are but a few of the elements which constitute successful business relations. {14}

10. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence: e.g., The question of hearing was seriously troubling the minister — they probably had heard too much.

¶ Dashes may be substituted for commas or marks of parenthesis before and after expressions having closer connection with the main sentence than could be indicated by marks of parenthesis: e.g., They might have been talking for a quarter of an hour or more, when Monks — by which name the Jew had designated the strange man — said, etc.

¶ Use the dash preceded by the colon before a long quotation forming a new paragraph. The dash is not otherwise used with other punctuation marks unless demanded by clearness.

¶ In France, printers use the dash as a frequent substitute for quotation-marks in dialogue, placing quotation-marks only at the beginning and the end, even though extended over several pages.

THE EXCLAMATION

The proper use of the exclamation-point lends force and vigor to language in expressing surprise or emotion, but when overused it cheapens intended pathos and thus defeats the writer’s purpose. It should always be placed {15} outside the quotation-marks unless it is a part of the quotation itself. The mark is formed from the word Io, signifying joy, written vertically .

The exclamation-point is required:

1. At the end of a word or sentence to express strong emotion: e.g., God forbid ! “Mind that, Fagin !”

2. To indicate sarcasm or doubt on the part of the writer regarding the authenticity of a statement: e.g., “For Brutus is an honorable man !”

3. After exclamatory words. If the same interjection is repeated use the comma to separate the words, placing the exclamation-point only at the end, unless the intention is to make each of the repeated words emphatic: e.g., “Oh ! dear, dear, dear !” he exclaimed; “what an unfortunate memory you have !”

¶ Use great care in distinguishing between Oh !, an interjection expressing pain or surprise, and the vocative O, expressing a wish or an imprecation, which does not call for the exclamation-point: e.g., “Oh ! what damned minutes tells he o’er !” and “O that I had wings like a dove !”

THE INTERROGATION

The interrogation-point is formed from the first and last letters of the Latin word quaestio (a question) placed one over the other; as {16} . It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless it is a part of the quotation itself.

1. Every sentence containing a direct question should close with an interrogation-point: e.g., When can this order be shipped ? We have received a letter which asks, “What date can you give us for shipping these goods ?”

2. The interrogation-point is used to express doubt: e.g., This volume is said to be bound in real ( ?) morocco.

3. Indirect questions do not take the interrogation-point: e.g., He inquired when it would be ready.

QUOTATION-MARKS

1. Enclose every direct quotation in double quotation-marks: e.g., “I insist upon it,” he said; “there is no alternative.”

2. When a quotation of a passage from an author in his own words is run into the text it should be placed between quotation-marks.

3. Selections from different works by the same author, or from different authors, following each other without intervening original matter, or by reference to their sources, should be quoted.

4. When setting poetry the quotation-marks should overhang the beginning of the line. This should also be done when prose display matter is “blocked.”

5. Single quotes are used for quotations {17} within quotations; double quotes for quotations within single quotations.

6. Quotations should always include the phrase etc., and other ellipses whenever necessary to secure perfect clearness.

7. When a long quotation is made, including several paragraphs or verses, the quotation-mark should appear at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only.

Quote:

1. A phrase or a word which is accompanied by its definition: e.g., “Roman quote” means to place the matter indicated between quotations in roman type.

2. Words or phrases in the text which are intended by the writer to possess an unusual, technical, or ironical meaning: e.g., Her literary “salon” will long be remembered; This so-called “captain of industry.”

3. Titles of poems, books, etc.: e.g., Longfellow’s “Belfry of Bruges.”

4. Serial titles: e.g., the “Oriental Series,” “Stories of Nations.”

5. Words to which the writer desires to attract attention: e.g., The name of “Florence” immediately causes one to think of humanism.

6. The names of ships, unless directed to italicize them.

7. The titles of works of art: e.g., Raphael’s “Sistine Madonna.” {18}

PARENTHESES

1. Marks of parenthesis are employed to separate from the rest of the sentence enclosed expressions having no essential connection: e.g., I am unable to take this action (why do you urge me?) for reasons which I cannot now give.

2. Figures or letters used to mark divisions in enumerations should be placed between parentheses: e.g., There is a double reason for doing this: (a) it is the simplest form; (b) it is clearer for the reader.

BRACKETS

Use brackets:

1. To enclose explanations or notes which are entirely independent of the balance of the sentence. Ordinarily these are comments, queries, directions, corrections, or criticisms inserted by some person other than the original writer: e.g., Let them clamor to get them back again [cheers].

2. Rather than parentheses, to enclose drop-folios (folios placed at foot of page).

3. For enclosing parenthetical statements within parentheses.

THE APOSTROPHE

Use the apostrophe (or the apostrophe and the letter s):

1. To form the possessive case of common and proper nouns: e.g., The nation’s {19} hope; For Jesus’ sake; James’s apple; For appearance’ sake; The boys’ camp.

2. To form the plural of numerals, but the apostrophe alone for the plural of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a sibilant: e.g., They passed by in two’s and four’s; She is one of those W.C.T.U.’s; That came from Perkins’. Add es or s for monosyllabic proper nouns: e.g., The Fosses. In general, the pronunciation may be taken as a guide: if it is necessary to add a syllable to pronounce the possessive, use the double s: e.g., Sickles’ corps, not Sickles’s.

3. Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of one or more letters in a contracted word, or the omission of figures in a number: e.g., That’s ’ow ’twas; The spirit of ’76; High o’er our heads; I’ll for I will; Don’t for do not, sha’n’t, etc.

4. The custom of substituting the apostrophe for the letter e in poetry, at one time common, is now obsolete: e.g., At ev’ry word a reputation dies. This rule is disregarded when the letter is omitted for metrical reasons.

THE HYPHEN

The hyphen is employed to join words together which have not become single words through general usage, and where words are necessarily broken at the end of a line. It is also used to separate the syllables of words, in showing the correct pronunciation. (See Compound Words.)

{20}

CAPITALIZATION

THE original use of capitals in early manuscripts was for the purpose of variety and ornamentation, and their position was naturally subject to each writer’s individual taste. Good form now prescribes certain definite rules of capitalization as follows:

RELIGIOUS TERMS

Capitalize:

1. Titles of parables: e.g., the parable of the Prodigal Son, etc.

2. The books and divisions of the Bible and of other sacred books: e.g., Old Testament, Book of Job, etc.

3. Versions of the Bible: e.g., King James Version, Revised Version, etc.

4. The names of monastic orders and their members: e.g., the Jesuits, the Black Friars, etc.

5. The word Church when it stands for the Church universal, or when part of a name: e.g., the Church, the First Congregational Church, the Church of Rome; but use lower case when referring to church history.

6. The word Gospel when it refers to a book of the Bible, as the Gospel of John, or {21} the Gospels; but use lower case when referring to the gospel message.

7. Pronouns referring to God or Christ when used in direct address, or whenever the reference might otherwise be mistaken.

8. General biblical terms: e.g., Priestly Code, Apostles’ Creed, Lord’s Prayer, Lord’s Supper, The Prophets, and Major and Minor Prophets, when the collection of prophetical books is intended; but use lower case for the adjectives biblical and scriptural.

9. Names applied to the Evil One, except when used as an expletive, or as a general name for any demon: e.g.,

“When the Devil was sick, the Devil a monk would be;

When the Devil was well, the devil a monk was he.”

10. The word Holy in the Holy place and the Holy of holies.

11. The title of a psalm: e.g., the Twenty-fourth Psalm.

12. Capitalize the following:

- Almighty
- Authorized Version
- Common Version
- Creator
- Deity
- Father
- God
- Holy Bible
- Holy Spirit
- Holy Writ
- Jehovah
- Jesus Christ
- King
- Logos
- Lord
- Messiahship
- Messiah
- Messianic
- Passover
- Pentecost
- Redeemer
- Revised Version
- Sabbath
- Saviour
- Scriptures
- Son of Man
- Son
- Spirit
- The Trinity
- The Virgin Mary
- Word

{22}

Do not capitalize:

1. Words like epistle, book (as the book of Ruth), psalm, or psalms when not used distinctively, or psalmist when the author of a single psalm is intended.

2. Words like heaven, heavenly, hell.

3. The words fatherhood and sonship, god when a pagan deity is referred to, temple.

PROPER NAMES

Capitalize:

1. Epithets employed as substitutes for or affixes to proper names: e.g., Peter the Great, the Pretender, etc.

2. The words Pilgrim Fathers and Early Fathers (referring to the Early Church), etc.

3. The word Revolutionary when referring to the Revolution of 1776: e.g., a Revolutionary soldier.

4. The words river, creek, brook, mountain, mine, district, county, channel, when used as a part of a title: e.g., Hudson River, Clear Brook, Rocky Mountains; but use lower case when preceded by the: e.g., the Hudson river, etc.

5. Nouns designating definite geographical portions of the country or divisions of the world: e.g., the North, the South, the West, the Old World; and in the division of the Jewish Commonwealth, the Northern Kingdom, the Southern Kingdom. Also capitalize the adjectival nouns derived from them: e.g., Northerner, Southerner, Oriental, {23} Occidental. Use lower case for adjectives: e.g., He is now in southern California, etc.

6. Abstract ideas or terms when personified; e.g., Pride flaunts herself; Nature gives willingly of her abundance.

7. Names of streets, squares, parks, buildings, etc.: e.g., Beacon Street, Copley Square, Franklin Park, Tremont Building, etc.

8. Abbreviations of names of corporations and firms: e.g., N.Y.C. & H.R.R.R.

9. The abbreviation Co. (Company) in firm or corporation names.

10. The scientific names of divisions, orders, families, and genera in all botanical, geological, or zoölogical copy: e.g., Ichneumon Fly (Thalessa lunator), Reptilia, Vertebrata, etc.

11. The days of the week and the months of the year, but use lower case for the seasons, unless personified or referred to specifically: e.g., It was a bright spring day; but, Spring, beautiful Spring; the Spring of 1911, etc.

12. The popular names of the bodies of the solar system (except sun, moon, stars, earth): e.g., the Dipper, the Milky Way, Venus, etc.

13. In botanical and zoölogical copy, the names of species if derived from proper names or from generic names, but in geological and medical matter use lower case for the names of species, even though derived from proper names: e.g., Clover-root Borer, Hylesinus trifolii, Pterygomatopus schmidti. {24}

14. Capitalize the following:

- Articles of Confederation
- Bill of Rights
- Commonwealth (Cromwell’s)
- Commune
- Constitution
- Crusades
- Hundred Years’ War
- Inquisition
- Magna Charta
- Middle Ages
- Reformation
- Renaissance
- Restoration
- Revolution of July
- Seven Years’ War
- Stone Age

Do not capitalize:

1. Words derived from proper names and their derivatives when such words are so familiarly used as to lose the significance and personality of their origin: e.g., fletcherize, macadamize, quixotic, italicize, etc.

2. Nouns and adjectives when they merely fix a point of the compass: e.g., He came from the north, western New York, upper Canada, etc.

3. The words father, mother, mamma, and all other family appellations, except when used with the proper name of the person or without a possessive pronoun: e.g., I expect to meet my mother, but, I have received a telegram from Mother; My aunt gave me this, but, It is a present from Aunt Mary.

TITLES

Capitalize:

1. The word State when it refers to a political division of the Union: e.g., the State {25} of Massachusetts; but use lower case when the word is employed as an adjective.

2. The words Federal, Government, Constitution, Cabinet, Administration when they refer to United States Government, and President when referring to the President of the United States.

3. All titles of honor, nobility, and respect: e.g., His Excellency, Her Majesty, Father William, Mother Hubbard, Cousin John, Deacon Smith.

4. Civil and military titles when they are used specifically: e.g., President Taft, King George, the Governor, General Grant, etc.; but do not capitalize the titles of offices actually existing when following the name: e.g., William H. Taft, president of the United States.

5. The names of societies: e.g., Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor, Boston Congregational Club, Second Church Parish.

6. Names of expositions, conventions, etc.: e.g., Brockton Fair, Congress of Physiology, etc.

7. Abbreviations of degrees: e.g., Ph.D., LL.D., Litt.D., omitting space between the letters.

8. Such titles as von, in German, le, la, du, de, or d’, in French, da, della, di, or de’, etc., in Italian, when the forename is not given: e.g., Von Humboldt, Da Ponte; but when the article or preposition is preceded by {26} a forename the title should not be capitalized: e.g., Lorenzo de’ Medici. Van in Dutch is always capitalized.

9. After Whereas and Resolved, followed by a comma, begin the first word with a capital; e.g., WHEREAS, It has pleased Almighty God . . . ; therefore be it Resolved, That . . .

10. After a colon, capitalize the first word only when followed by a complete independent sentence or passage or where preceded by such introductory phrases as namely, as follows, for instance, the point is this, my conclusion is this, etc.

11. In titles of books or essays all words except unimportant adjectives, prepositions, and conjunctions: e.g., The Fall of the House of Usher.

Do not capitalize:

1. Adjectives compounded with an inseparable prefix with proper names; e.g., transatlantic, unamerican.

2. The words apostle, pope, bishop, canon, rector, chaplain, minister, etc., when separated from names or used descriptively: e.g., the apostle Paul; but in direct address they should be capitalized: e.g., “O Apostle Paul.”

INSTITUTIONAL TERMS

Capitalize:

1. Thanksgiving Day, Lord’s Day, New Year’s Day, the Fourth (referring to the {27} Fourth of July), Children’s Day, Easter, Founder’s Day, etc.

2. The word College or University only when part of the title: e.g., Amherst College, Harvard University.

3. Political alliances and terms which have acquired similar significance: e.g., the Dreibund, the Insurgents.

4. Titles of treaties, laws, and acts: e.g., the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Declaration of Independence, the Edict of Nantes.

5. Names of political parties: e.g., Republican, Democrat, etc.; but use lower case for republican form of government, a true democrat, etc., where reference is not made to members of political parties.

6. Names and epithets of races, tribes, and peoples: e.g., Hottentots, Celestials, etc.; but use lower case for negro, colored people, the blacks, the whites, poor whites, etc.

7. Generic parts of names of political divisions (a) when the term is an organic part of the name, directly following the proper name: e.g., the Russian Empire, Norfolk County, etc.; (b) when it is used with the preposition of as an integral part of the name indicating administrative subdivisions of the United States: e.g., Commonwealth of Massachusetts; (c) when it is used singly as designation for a specific division: e.g., the Dominion (of Canada), the Union; (d) when it is used as part of an appellation as though {28} a real geographical name: e.g., the Pine Tree State, the Promised Land; but use lower case for such terms when standing alone or preceding the specific name: e.g., the empire of Germany, the county of Norfolk.

8. Numbered political divisions: e.g., Ward Eleven, Fifth Precinct, Eleventh Congressional District, etc.

Do not capitalize:

1. The words legislature, circuit court, district court, city council, supreme court, senate, and house of representatives except when specifically applied: e.g., the legislature of the State, the circuit court, etc.; but Congress, the Circuit Court of Suffolk County, the House of Representatives of the United States.

2. The words high school, grammar school, except as part of title: e.g., the Dorchester High School; but the high school of Dorchester.

REFERENCES

Capitalize:

1. Nouns followed by a capitalized roman numeral: e.g., Act I, Vol. VIII, etc. In references the nouns and the roman numerals are often lower-cased.

Do not capitalize:

1. Minor subdivisions and their abbreviations of literary references: e.g., line, verse, note, section, chapter, page, etc. {29}

ORDINALS

Capitalize:

1. Sessions of Congress, dynasties, names of regiments, etc.: e.g., the Fifty-fourth Congress, the Sixteenth Dynasty, the Forty-fourth Massachusetts.

IN GENERAL

Capitalize:

1. The first word of a sentence and the first word of each line of poetry.

2. The words I and O.

3. The first word after a colon when introducing a sentence having an independent meaning: e.g., My explanation is: Competition forces each manufacturer to study economies.

4. Words having special meanings: e.g., the Referee’s decision, a Bachelor’s degree.

5. The first word of every direct quotation.

6. In side-heads capitalize only the first word and proper names.

7. In a letter, the first word after the address. In the address, sir, friend, father, brother, sister, etc.

Do not capitalize:

1. Words used in forming parts of hyphenated compounds: e.g., The speed of the Twentieth-century Limited, West Twenty-third Street, etc.

2. Units of measurement and their {30} abbreviations: e.g., second, minute, hour, ounce, pound, foot, yard, etc.

3. The first word of a quotation following a colon (a) if it is closely connected with what precedes it; (b) if the phrase is dependent upon the preceding clause; or (c) if the words following the colon contain comment: e.g., These explanations occur to me: either the manufacturers are unaware of the situation, or they have become indifferent.

4. The definite article as a part of the title in mentioning newspapers or magazines: e.g., the Boston Herald, the Review of Reviews.

¶ When a date is at the end of a letter or paper, it is to be placed at the left of page, using roman caps and lower case if above signature; caps, small caps, and italic if below signature.

¶ On title-pages and in headings certain words may be capitalized which in paragraphed matter would be made lower case: e.g., Queen Maria Sophia, a Forgotten Heroine.

¶ In MS., two lines drawn underneath a word or words indicate SMALL CAPITALS; three lines, CAPITALS.

SMALL CAPITALS

1. B.C. and A.D., A.M. and P.M. should be set in small caps, with no spacing between the letters: e.g., B.C. 480.

{31}

SPELLING

THE difficulties which a writer encounters who has not firmly anchored himself to some recognized authority are many, and for those who have found this refuge to remain consistent is almost an impossibility. To the complications occasioned by variations in spelling certain words given authority by the different recognized dictionaries, there has been added more recently the bewilderment of the “reformed” spelling. To lay down hard-and-fast rules, therefore, would be an act of folly, but a safe guide to follow is to note that when two or more forms exist in any good usage, including good minority usage, or recent usage among bibliographers, scientists, and other systematic writers, the following rules are observed:

- (a) Prefer the form most correct etymologically

- (b) Prefer the shortest and simplest

- (c) Prefer the more phonetic form

- (d) Prefer English spelling rather than foreign.

With this as a basis, the following rules may be formulated:

NUMBERS

1. Percentage should always take figures: e.g., 1⁄2 of 1 per cent. {32}

2. Spell out references to specific decades: e.g., Back in the eighties.

3. Spell out years and months in stating ages: e.g., Edward is five years and four months old.

4. Spell out numbers of centuries, dynasties, military bodies, streets and thoroughfares, sessions of Congress.

5. In statistical or technical matter figures should be used: e.g., The paper to be used is 33 × 44 inches, and weighs 120 pounds to the ream.

6. Spell out, in ordinary reading matter, all numbers of less than three digits: e.g., We have twenty-five titles, amounting to 250,000 volumes in all.

7. If, in a group of numbers, some consist of three digits and others of less, use figures for all: e.g., The packages contain, respectively, 50, 85, and 128 sheets, not fifty, eighty-five, and 128.

8. Spell out round numbers, but use figures for specific, even though approximate statements: e.g., The population of the United States is about one hundred millions; but, The population of the United States is 92,000,000.

9. Always spell out a figure, whatever its size, when it begins a sentence. If for any reason this is impracticable the sentence must be reconstructed.

10. In ordinary reading matter spell out the time of day, but in enumerations, and {33} always in connection with A.M. and P.M., use figures, omitting the word o’clock: e.g., The doors open at 7:30 P.M.

DIPHTHONGS

1. Avoid all diphthongs, especially æ and œ, but retain æ and œ in Latin words and in nominal English forms like formulæ and other plurals, arbor vitæ, etc. Established English words having now or formerly the ligature æ or œ are generally written with the simple e.

SIMPLE RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY

1. Monosyllablic words which end in f, l, or s, when preceded by a single vowel, double their final letter: e.g., muff, still, lass. Exceptions: clef, of, if, bul, nul, sal, sol, as, gas, has, was, yes, gris, is, his, this, pus, us, thus.

2. Monosyllabic words which end in consonants other than f, l, or s do not double their final letter. Exceptions: abb, add, ebb, odd, mumm, inn, bunn, err, purr, burr, butt, mitt, fizz, fuzz, buzz.

3. Monosyllabic words ending in a consonant immediately following a diphthong or a double vowel do not double their final letter. Exception: guess.

4. In monosyllables and words accented on the final syllable ending with a single consonant (excepting h or x) preceded by a single vowel, or by qu and a vowel, the final consonant is doubled before an added {34} termination beginning with a vowel, irrespective of the addition of another syllable: e.g., stop, stopped; regret, regretting. When, however, the place of the accent is changed by the added termination, the final consonant is not doubled: e.g., prefer´, pref´erable.

5. In monosyllables and words not accented on the last syllable, an added termination does not double the final consonant when it is preceded by a diphthong or by two vowels: e.g., profit, profited; cancel, canceled; benefit, benefited; equal, equality, novel, novelist, and all the derivatives of parallel.

6. Words which end in any double letters retain the double with a termination not beginning with the same letter. This rule also holds for derivatives formed by means of prefixes: e.g., agreeing, calling, recall. Exceptions: instalment, enrolment, skilful, wilful, enthralment, pontific, withal, until, and similar derivatives.

7. Words ending in -our, the u being unsounded, are spelled -or, with the exception of Saviour and glamour. The English custom is to retain the -our in most words having this ending.

8. Words derived from words ending in silent e after a consonant retain the e when the added termination begins with a consonant: e.g., state, statement, stately; pale, paleness; move, movement. Exceptions: abridgment, {35} acknowledgment, judgment, lodgment, nursling, wholly, wisdom.

When another vowel (except e or i) immediately precedes the final e, the final e is usually dropped before a consonant: e.g., argue, argument; awe, awful; true, truly, etc. There are, however, many exceptions to this rule: e.g., eye, eyesight, etc.

When the termination begins with a vowel, the final e is omitted: e.g., sale, salable; bride, bridal; force, forcible. Exceptions: mileage, etc.

9. When words end in ce or ge the final e is retained before added terminations beginning with a or o: e.g., change, changeable; courage, courageous.

10. In participles the final e is sometimes retained for the purpose of distinguishing them from other words pronounced the same but having a different meaning: e.g., singe, singeing, to distinguish from singing; dye, dyeing, to distinguish from dying, etc. The e is also retained in hoeing, toeing, and shoeing.3

3 See list on page 37.

11. Words ending in ie change their termination to y upon adding ing: e.g., die, dying; vie, vying.

12. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant change the y to i before any added termination not beginning with i: e.g., {36} merry, merriment; happy, happiness. Exceptions: adjectives of one syllable: e.g., dry, dryly; sly, slyness. Also except derivatives formed by adding ship and hood: e.g., suretyship, babyhood; but hardihood.

When the final y is preceded by a vowel, the y is usually changed to i: e.g., gay, gaiety; day, daily; pay, paid; lay, laid, etc.

13. The French ending -re in theater, center, meager, sepulcher, etc., is not now generally considered good usage.

14. The possessive of proper nouns ending in s or other sibilant is formed by adding the apostrophe and s if the word is of one syllable: e.g., James’s apple; but add the apostrophe alone if the word is of more than one syllable: e.g., For Jesus’ sake.4

15. Words which in their shortest form end in -d, -de, -ge, -mit, -rt, -se, -ss take the ending -sion: e.g., abscind, abscission; seclude, seclusion; emerge, emersion; admit, admission; revert, reversion; confuse, confusion; impress, impression. Other words take the ending -tion.5

4 See page 19.

5 See list of irregular forms, and departures from rule on page 39.

ACCENTED WORDS

The following is a partial list of words in common use in which accented letters occur: {37}

- attaché
- chargé d’affaires
- confrère
- coup d’état
- coup de grâce
- crèche
- débris
- en arrière
- en échelon
- en règle
- entrée
- entrepôt
- exposé
- façade
- faïence
- habitué
- lèse majesté
- matériel
- matinée
- mêlée
- née
- papier-maché
- procès verbal
- protégé
- régime
- résumé
- rôle
- señor
- soirée
- tête-à-tête
- vis-à-vis
- visé

PARTICIPLES

These participles should be spelled as follows:

- acknowledging
- agreeing
- awing
- bluing
- dyeing
- encouraging
- gluing
- grudging
- hieing
- hoeing
- icing
- judging
- owing
- shoeing
- singeing
- tingeing
- trudging
- truing

VARIABLE ENDINGS

1. The following words are spelled with the termination ize:

- aggrandize
- agonize
- analyze
- anatomize
- anglicize
- apologize
- apostrophize
- apprize (to value)
- authorize
- baptize
- brutalize
- canonize
- catechize
- catholicize
- cauterize
- centralize
- characterize
- christianize
- civilize
- colonize
- criticize
- crystallize
- demoralize
- dogmatize
- economize
- emphasize
- epitomize
- equalize
- eulogize
- evangelize
- extemporize
- familiarize
- fertilize
- fossilize
- fraternize
- galvanize
- generalize
- gormandize
- harmonize
- immortalize
- italicize
- jeopardize
- legalize
- liberalize
- localize
- magnetize
- memorialize
- mesmerize
- metamorphize
- methodize
- minimize
- modernize
- monopolize
- moralize
- nationalize
- naturalize
- neutralize
- organize
- ostracize
- paralyze
- particularize
- pasteurize
- patronize
- philosophize
- plagiarize
- pulverize
- realize
- recognize
- reorganize
- revolutionize
- satirize
- scandalize
- scrutinize
- signalize
- solemnize
- soliloquize
- specialize
- spiritualize
- standardize
- stigmatize
- subsidize
- summarize
- syllogize
- symbolize
- sympathize
- tantalize
- temporize
- tranquilize
- tyrannize
- universalize
- utilize
- vaporize
- vitalize
- vocalize
- vulcanize
- vulgarize

2. The following words are spelled with the termination ise:

- advertise
- advise
- appraise
- apprise (to inform)
- arise
- chastise
- circumcise
- comprise
- compromise
- demise
- devise
- disfranchise
- disguise
- emprise
- enfranchise
- enterprise
- exercise
- exorcise
- franchise
- improvise
- incise
- manuprise
- merchandise
- premise
- reprise
- revise
- rise
- supervise
- surmise
- surprise

3. The following words have the termination -ible; words not included in this list {39} end in -able6, except a few words pronounced similarly, but spelled differently.

- accessible
- admissible
- appetible
- apprehensible
- audible
- cessible
- coercible
- compatible
- competible
- comprehensible
- compressible
- conceptible
- contemptible
- contractible
- controvertible
- convertible
- convincible
- corrigible
- corrosible
- corruptible
- credible
- decoctible
- deducible
- defeasible
- defensible
- descendible
- destructible
- digestible
- discernible
- distensible
- divisible
- docible
- edible
- effectible
- eligible
- eludible
- enforcible
- evincible
- expansible
- expressible
- extendible
- extensible
- fallible
- feasible
- fencible
- flexible
- forcible
- francible
- fusible
- gullible
- horrible
- illegible
- immiscible
- impassible7
- intelligible
- irascible
- legible
- miscible
- negligible
- partible
- passible7
- perceptible
- permissible
- persuasible
- pervertible
- plausible
- possible
- productible
- reducible
- reflexible
- refrangible
- remissible
- reprehensible
- resistible
- responsible
- reversible
- revertible
- risible
- seductible
- sensible
- tangible
- terrible
- transmissible
- visible

6 RULE: Derivations of the first conjugation in Latin take a; those of the other conjugations, i.

7 See page 42.

4. These are the irregular forms of the endings -sion and -tion.

- adhesion
- assertion
- attention
- coercion
- cohesion
- crucifixion
- declension
- dimension
- dissension
- distortion
- divulsion
- expulsion
- impulsion
- insertion
- intention
- occasion
- propulsion
- recursion
- repulsion
- revulsion
- scansion
- suspicion
- tension
- version

5. The following words are pronounced similarly, but the meaning changes with the spelling:

Advice | counsel
advise | to counsel
albumen | white of egg
albumin | viscous substance
alegar | ale vinegar
aleger | cheerful, sprightly
ante | preceding
anti | against
apprise | to inform
apprize | to value
auger | tool
augur | to predict by signs
Base | bottom, vile
bass | lowest tone
bask | to lie in warmth
basque | apparel
berth | place to sleep
birth | coming into life
breach | gap
breech | hinder part of a gun
Cannon | gun
canon | law or rule
canyon | gorge
cannot | denial of power
can not | affirmation of power
canvas | cloth
canvass | to solicit
capital | chief, money, stock
capitol | building
caster | vial
castor | rodent
censer | incense-pan
censor | critic
cere | to wax
sear | to burn the surface
seer | prophet
sere | dry, withered
claimant | one who claims
clamant | beseeching
complement | fulness
compliment | praise
conveyer | one who conveys
conveyor | contrivance for conveying objects
coquet | to trifle in love
coquette | flirt
council | deliberative body
counsel | to advise
consular | pertaining to a counsel
councilor | member of a council
counselor | adviser
corespondent | one who answers jointly with another
correspondent | one who corresponds by letter
Depositary | receiver
depository | place of deposit
discreet | prudent
discrete | distinct
dyeing | coloring
dying | expiring
Emigrant | one who moves out of a country
immigrant | one who moves into a country
emigration | moving out
immigration | moving in
empirical | experimentative
empyrical | combustible principle of coal
Faker | cheat, swindler
fakir | Oriental religious ascetic
farther | as applied to distance
further | signifying additional
Galipot | resin or pitch
gallipot | medicine pot
gantlet | “running the gantlet”
gauntlet | glove
grisly | horrible
grizzly | grayish
Hoard | accumulate
horde | troop
Immanent | inherent
imminent | impending
impassible | incapable of emotion
impassable | not passable
incipient | commencing
insipient | stupid, foolish
indict | charge with crime
indite | compose, write
indiscreet | imprudent
indiscrete | compact
intension | stretching
intention | determination
Lessen | to reduce
lesson | something to be studied
Maize | corn
maze | labyrinth
marten | animal
martin | bird
meat | flesh
meet | to join, proper
mete | to measure
miner | digger
minor | under age
mucous | slimy
mucus | viscid fluid
O | wish, imprecation
oh! | an exclamation
Panel | sunken plane with raised margins
pannel | rustic saddle
parol | oral declaration
parole | word of honor
passable | admitting passage
passible | unfeeling
pendant | ornament
pendent | hanging
premices | first-fruits
premises | property
principal | adjective
principle | noun
prophecy | prediction
prophesy | to foretell
Rabbet | groove in edge of boards
rabbit | small animal
resin | semi-liquid exudation of the pine
rosin | solid product of turpentine
rigger | a fitter of ships’ rigging
rigor | muscular rigidity
riot | tumult
ryot | tiller of the soil
Saver | one who saves
savor | flavor
subtle | sly, artful
suttle | net weight
sheath | scabbard
sheathe | to cover
sleight | artful trick
slight | small
Theocracy | government by direction of God
theocrasy | mixture of worship of different gods
ton | measure of weight
tun | large cask
Vertical | perpendicular
verticle | axis, hinge
Wheal | raised mark, a welt
wheel | rotating disk

{45}

COMPOUND WORDS

THE general theory of compounding is that when two words are used together with but a single meaning, the hyphen is employed if the emphasis of pronunciation falls upon the first word, but omitted if it is the second word which requires the emphasis. Practice, however, has shown that this theory is not sufficiently specific in its expression to guide the student who is desirous of making consistent use of the hyphen, and recourse to the various dictionaries adds to his confusion because of the many variations. Good usage, therefore, becomes his only refuge, and the rules which are formulated and collated here are based wholly upon what appears to the present writer to come within this definition. Many words originally compounded or written as two words are now written as one; on the other hand, modern usage now compounds or breaks into two words many words which were originally written as one.

¶ In general, hyphens should always be omitted when the meaning can be equally well expressed by using the same words separately. {46}

Use the hyphen:

1. With the prefix mid, except in cases of words in common use: e.g., mid-channel, but midsummer, midday, etc.

2. When two or more words (except proper names which form a unity in themselves) are combined, preceding a noun: e.g., the well-known financier, up-to-date equipment, go-as-you-please race; but a quaint old English tea-room.

In applying this rule be careful not to hyphenate adjectives and participles with adverbs which end in ly, nor with combinations such as those referred to when following a noun or qualifying a predicate: e.g., possessed of highly developed intelligence, a lawyer well thought of in his own city.

3. In such words as attorney-general, vice-president, rear-admiral, etc.; but not in viceroy, vicegerent, etc.

4. Compounds of color: e.g., olive-green, silver-gray, lemon-yellow, red-hot, etc. But in simple cases of adjective and noun, as brownish yellow or yellowish white the words are not compounded.

5. In nouns which stand in objective relation to each other, one of whose components is derived from a transitive verb: e.g., I am your well-wisher, He is a large property-holder, hero-worship, but not in bookkeeper, bookmaker, copyholder, dressmaker, lawgiver, proofreader, {47} taxpayer, and similar common short compounds.8

8 See page 50, Sec. 5.

6. In compounds of fellow: e.g., play-fellow, fellow-creatures, etc.; but bedfellow.

7. In compounds of father, mother, brother, sister, daughter, parent, and foster: e.g., father-feeling, mother-country, brother-love, sister-empire, foster-father, great-grandfather, etc.; but fatherland, fatherhead, grandfather.

8. In compounds of world and life: e.g., life-story, world-influence, etc.; but lifetime.

9. In compounds of master: e.g., master-painter, etc.; but masterpiece.

10. In compounds of god: e.g., sun-god, rain-god, etc.; but godson.

11. When half or quarter, etc., is combined with a noun: e.g., half-circle, half-title, quarter-mile, etc.; but quartermaster, headquarters, etc.

12. In compounds of self: e.g., self-esteem, self-respecting, etc., but not in selfhood, selfish, selfsame, or oneself.

13. In connecting ex, vice, general, elect, etc., constituting parts of titles, with the chief noun: e.g., ex-Governor Draper, Governor-elect Wilson, etc.

14. In compounds of by: e.g., by-laws, by-products, etc.

15. In connection with prefixes co, pre, and re when followed by words beginning with the same vowel as that in which they terminate, but not when followed by a {48} different vowel or a consonant: e.g., co-operation, but coeducation; pre-empted, but prearranged; re-elected, but recast. Exceptions: combinations with proper names, long or unusual formations, and words where the hyphen defines the meaning: e.g., re-creation and recreation, re-form and reform, re-collect and recollect, pre-Raphaelite.

16. In writing ordinal numbers when compounded with such words as first-rate, second-hand, etc.

17. In connection with the word quasi prefixed to a noun or to an adjective: e.g., quasi-corporation, quasi-compliant, etc.

18. In connection with the Latin prepositions extra, infra, semi, supra, and ultra: e.g., extra-hazardous but extraordinary; ultra-conservative but Ultramontane.

19. In spelling out fractional numbers involving more than two words: e.g., The supply is three-quarters exhausted; but, This leaves twenty-five hundredths.

20. In compounding numerals of one syllable with self-explanatory words of various meanings: e.g., three-legged, four-footed, one-armed, etc.

Also in combining numerals with nouns, to form an adjective: e.g. twelve-inch rule, hundred-yard dash, two-horse team, etc.

21. In compounding a noun in the possessive case with another noun: e.g., jews’-harp, crow’s-nest, etc. {49}

22. In some compounds with tree: e.g., apple-tree; but whippletree, crosstree, etc.

23. In compounding personal epithets: e.g., hard-headed, bow-legged, etc.

24. Use the hyphen in the following words:

- after-years
- bas-relief
- birth-rate
- blood-feud
- blood-relations
- common-sense
- cross-examine
- cross-reference
- cross-section
- death-rate
- feast-day
- folk-song
- food-stuff
- fountain-head
- guinea-pig
- horse-power
- page-proof
- pay-roll
- poor-law
- post-office
- sea-level
- sense-perception
- son-in-law
- subject-matter
- man-of-war
- object-lesson
- thought-process
- title-page
- wave-length
- well-being
- well-nigh
- will-power

Do not use the hyphen:

1. When writing points of the compass: e.g., northeast, southwest; but north-northeast, etc.

2. In words ending in like, unless compounded with nouns containing more than one syllable (except when ending in l): e.g., childlike, lifelike; but business-like, bell-like, etc.

3. In compounds ending with man or woman: e.g., workman, needlewoman, etc.

4. In phrases such as by and by, by the bye, good morning, attorney at law, coat of arms, etc.

5. In words ending in boat, house, look, room, side, yard, shop, mill, field, work, chair, maker, holder, keeper, skin, store, book, fold, score, penny, pence when the prefixed noun {50} contains but a single syllable: e.g., twofold, schoolroom, handbook, windmill, bookkeeper, workshop, etc. Exceptions: Court-house and State House.

When prefixed noun contains two syllables, use the hyphen: e.g., bucket-shop, twenty-fold, ante-room, mason-work, paper-mill, etc.9

When prefixed noun contains three or more syllables write as two separate words: e.g., policy shop.

6. In compounds of bi, tri, semi, or demi: e.g., bimonthly, tricolor, semiannual, demijohn. Exceptions: long or unusual formations: e.g., bi-centennial, etc.

7. In today,10 tonight, tomorrow, viewpoint, or standpoint.

9 See page 47, Sec. 5.

10 Cf. the old English words to-morn, to-year, etc.

8. In connection with the negative prefixes un, in, and a: e.g., unrepublican, inanimate, etc., but the prefix non requires the hyphen except in words which have become common: e.g., non-conductor, but nonsense.

9. In connection with the words over and under employed as prefixes: e.g., overestimate, undersecretary; but over-soul, over-spiritual, under-man.

10. In connection with the Latin prepositions ante, anti, inter, intra, post, sub, and super: e.g., antedate, antidote, subtitle, etc.; but ante-room, anti-imperialistic, intra-atomic. {51}

11. In spelling out a series of fractions: e.g., I can secure you one, two, or three fifths, not one-, two-, or three-fifths.

Nor in writing ordinary fractions: e.g., one half, five eighths, etc.

But another class of fractions require the hyphen: e.g., twenty-fifth, twenty-two one-hundredths.

12. In compounds ending with holder or monger: e.g., stockholder, ironmonger.

13. In compounds beginning with eye: e.g., eyeglass, eyebrow, eyelash, eyewitness, etc.

14. In compounds with the word school: e.g., schoolmates, schoolmaster, etc. Exceptions: when made with a participle: e.g., school-teaching; or in combinations where separate words are more clear: e.g., school committee, school children, etc.

15. In compounds with deutero, electro, pseudo, sulpho, thermo, etc., unless the compound is unusual: e.g., electrotype, pseudonym, etc.

16. In compound adverbs: e.g., meantime, moreover, forever, everywhere, etc. But in phrases like after a while, in the mean time, for ever and ever, the words should be separated.

17. In words like anybody, anyhow, anything, anyway, anywhere, somebody, somehow, something, sometime, somewhat, somewhere. But any one and some one are written as separate words.

{52}

DIVISION OF WORDS

THE unnecessary division of a word should always be avoided. The whole word should be carried over whenever possible.

2. A word should be divided in accordance with its natural division in correct pronunciation, rather than according to derivation: e.g., knowl-edge, not know-ledge; but divide according to meaning and derivation as far as is compatible with good spacing and pronunciation: e.g., dis-pleasure, not displeas-ure.

3. A single consonant between two vowels should be joined with the first vowel if short, but with the latter if long: e.g., riv-er, ri-val; but avoid dividing words as short as these if possible.

4. When two consonants come together between two vowels the consonants should be divided: e.g., mil-lion, struc-ture.

5. When three consonants come together between two vowels the first of which is short, all which can be pronounced together go with the last syllable: e.g., han-dle, chil-dren, frus-trate, etc.

6. Whenever practicable, and always when the pronunciation of a word is peculiar, the division should come upon the vowel: e.g., pro-duct, colo-nel, sepa-rate, peo-ple, pro-gress. {53}

Exceptions: words ending in -able and -ible, which should carry the vowel over into the next line.

7. The letters c and g must never be separated from the vowels e, i, and y upon which their soft sound depends: e.g., re-li-gion, ca-pa-ci-ty, etc.

8. X must never begin a syllable, j must never end one, and q must not be separated from u, which invariably follows it.

9. When used as terminations, ing, en, ed, er, est, and the plural es are considered as syllables, except when the preceding consonant is doubled, or when they follow c or g soft: e.g., speak-ing, tak-en, long-er; but lat-ter, for-cing, ran-ging.

10. Two-letter divisions should always be avoided. These words should never be divided: eleven, heaven, power, faster, finer, houses, given, flower, prayer, soften, liken, verses, listen, often, voyage, nothing, even, etc.

11. When a derivative word ends in t, the t is carried over when the accent changes: e.g., instinc-tive (instinct); but not otherwise: e.g., construct-ive (construct).

12. More than two divisions in successive lines should be avoided.

13. A division at the end of the last full line of a paragraph should be avoided.

14. A word of four letters is not divisible. Dividing words of five or six letters should be avoided if possible. {54}

15. An amount that is stated in figures should not be divided.

16. A word in the past tense, pronounced as one syllable, should not be divided: e.g., beamed.

17. The separation of two initials of a person’s name, or such combination as B.C., A.M., should be avoided.

18. A divided word that will appear on the last line of one page and the top line of the next page is to be avoided.

19. Separating a divisional mark (a) or (b) from the matter to which it pertains should be avoided.

20. Adjectives ending in -ical should be divided upon the i: e.g., musi-cal, not music-al or mu-sical.

21. Word endings -tion, -sion, -tial, -cial, -tive, etc., are treated as one syllable.

22. In compound words additional hyphens should be avoided: e.g., music-lesson, not music-les-son.

Keep prefixes, roots, suffixes, etc., as distinct as possible.

NOTE. Division of words in French, Italian, German, and Spanish, may be found in De Vinne’s “Correct Composition,” pp. 434–446.

{55}

INDENTION AND PARAGRAPHING

IN prose manuscript, each paragraph should be written with regular indention.

2. When paragraphs are numbered, the figure should be written where the capital letter of the first word would otherwise be placed.

3. In poetry, lines which overrun should be written with reverse indention.

4. When poetry is quoted in a prose composition, it should begin on a new line. If the continuation of the prose writing does not call for a new paragraph, the next line of prose text begins without indention.

5. When a prose quotation is introduced, it should be treated as in Rule 4 if it contains more than a single sentence; otherwise it is “run in,” with the proper quotation-marks and punctuation.

6. There are different forms of indention in typography which are used for different purposes, viz.:

Irregular indention.— For this form of indention there are no specified rules, and it is used principally in certain styles of poetry and in display work. {56}

En échelon indention is largely used for display in posters and advertisements. It consists in the diagonal arrangement of words, thus:

CARPETS
CHAIRS
TABLES
STOVES

Hanging indention, which makes the first line of full width and indents all the following lines one or more ems on the left, as shown in these four lines.

Lozenge indention requires an arrangement of the lines in this manner:

{57}

PARAGRAPHING

Indention and Display are the methods employed in typography to secure clearness and to add distinction to the printed page, but clearness in the body of the text is dependent upon the skill of the writer in properly dividing his composition into paragraphs. Just as correct punctuation assists the reader in his understanding of a sentence, so does correct paragraphing add to the understanding of the composition as a whole. The following rules may be formulated, based upon the practice of the most careful writers:

1. A sentence which continues the topic of the sentence which precedes it rather than introduces a new topic should never begin a paragraph.

2. Each paragraph should possess a single central topic, to which all the statements in the paragraph should relate. The introduction of a single statement not so related to the central topic violates the unity.

3. A sentence or short passage may be detached from the paragraph to which it properly belongs if the writer wishes particularly to emphasize it.

4. For ease in reading, a passage which exceeds three hundred words in length may be broken into two paragraphs, even though no new topic has been developed.

5. Any digression from the central topic, or any change in the viewpoint in {58} considering the central topic, demands a new paragraph.

6. Coherence in a paragraph requires a natural and logical order of development.

7. Smoothness of diction in a paragraph calls for the intelligent use of proper connective words between closely related sentences. A common fault, however, is the incorrect use of such words as and or but between sentences which are not closely related.

8. In developing the paragraph, emphasis is secured by a careful consideration of the relative values of the ideas expressed, giving to each idea space proportionate to its importance to the whole. This secures the proper climax.

9. The paragraph, like the composition itself, should possess clearness, unity, coherence, and emphasis. It is a group of related sentences, developing a central topic. Its length depends upon the length of the composition and upon the number of topics to be discussed.

{59}

SPACING

EACH line should be spaced evenly throughout.

2. The spaces in a line should never vary more than the difference between a three to em space and an en quad.11

11 See page 60.

3. Uniformity in appearance shows excellence in printing. To have one line thin-spaced and the next wide-spaced is in bad taste. Even in narrow measure this inequality can be avoided with proper care.

4. In fonts of type where ends of hyphens and dashes touch the adjoining letters, hair-spaces should be used. Also use hair-spaces before colons, semicolons, interrogation-points, exclamation-marks, and inside quotation-marks.

5. No space should be left between superior letters, or letters indicating powers, and inferior figures or letters; or between letters forming products.

6. No space should be left between the abbreviations A.D. and B.C., A.M. and P.M., between titles, such as LL.D., Ph.D., etc., or between the abbreviations of States, such {60} as N.Y., R.I., N.H., etc., except in a wide-spaced line.

7. Scripture references should be spaced as follows: II Sam. 1 : 2–6; 2 : 8–12.

8. No space should be left between the symbols $ and £ and the succeeding figures.

9. An indention of one or more ems should be allowed at the end of the last line of a paragraph.

10. The same space should be left on each side of short words, such as a, an, etc.

11. It is poor typography to thin-space or wide-space a line in order to avoid a turn-over.

12. Beginning and ending a line with the same word in wide measure should be avoided, but not at the expense of good spacing.

13. The kerned letters f and j require a hair-space before them when they begin a line. When kerned letters end a line a hair-space is necessary after them to prevent breaking off in printing.

14. Should wide spacing be necessary, it should occur where it will be least noticed; viz., between words ending or beginning with tall letters.

15.This is an en dash: –
This is an em dash: —
This is a 2 em dash: ——
This is a 3 em dash: ———

{61}

16.This line is hair-spaced.
This line is spaced with 5-em spaces.
This line is spaced with 4-em spaces.
This line is spaced with 3-em spaces.
This line is spaced with en quads.
This line is spaced with em quads.

{62}

ITALIC

THE first italic types were designed and used by Aldus Manutius, the celebrated Italian printer, of the fifteenth century. It is said that the style was suggested by the handwriting of Petrarch. In the first fonts only the lower case letters were italic, the capitals being roman; but this irregularity soon gave way to the more regular style of italic capitals and lower case.

1. Italic is not used for the text of a book, but it is permissible for the preface, extracts, etc.

2. For poetry and other matter of a literary character italic has a decorative effect.

3. Italic is used for emphasis in roman composition and vice versa.

4. Italic is used frequently for subheads, running-heads, and side-heads, as well as for important paragraphs or extracts.

5. Italic is often used instead of roman-quoted for the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, and names of ships.

6. Signatures or credits are often placed in italic at the end of an article.

7. Foreign words and phrases are often required to be set in italic, but there are many which are now so familiar to English readers {63} that they are kept in the ordinary text. The following is a list of the most familiar words:

- à propos
- ad valorem
- addenda
- aide-de-camp
- alias
- alibi
- alma mater
- anno domini
- ante-bellum
- beau idéal
- billet-doux
- bon-ton
- bona fide
- bravo
- café
- canto
- carte blanche
- chapeau
- chaperon
- chargé d’affaires
- chiaroscuro
- cicerone
- contra
- corrigenda
- data
- débris
- début
- depot
- diarrhœa
- diatum
- dilettante
- dramatis personæ
- ennui
- entrepôt
- erratum
- et cetera
- facsimile
- fête
- finis
- gratis
- hoi polloi
- imprimatur
- innuendo
- literati
- mandamus
- manœuvre
- mignonette
- naïve
- ollapodrida
- onus
- paterfamilias
- patois
- per annum
- per capita
- per cent.
- per centum
- per se
- post-mortem
- pro rata
- protégé
- quondam
- régime
- rendezvous
- rôle
- savant
- seraglio
- sobriquet
- ultimatum
- verbatim
- vice
- vice versa
- viva voce

8. The following expressions, which are not as a rule so well known, should be italicized:

- ab ovo
- ancien régime
- bête noire
- comme il faut
- de quoi vivre
- de trop
- en passant
- fait accompli
- grand monde
- hors de combat
- inter alia
- jeu d’esprit
- locum tenens
- mise en scène
- noblesse oblige
- raison d’être
- sans cérémonie
- tour de force

{64}

9. Italic is used in the following words, phrases, and abbreviations employed in literary and legal references: e.g., ibid, idem, loc. cit., op. cit., ad loc., s.v., supra, infra, passim, vide, circa (ca.). Exceptions: cf., i.e., e.g., v. (versus), viz., etc., which are always roman.

10. Punctuation marks which are placed after italicized words should be italic.

Italic is used:

1. For the names of plaintiff and defendant in the citation of legal causes.

2. In algebraic, geometric, and similar matter to designate unknown quantities, lines, etc.

3. For s. and d. (shilling and pence) following the figures: e.g., 1s. 6d.

4. For specific names in Botany, Zoölogy, and Geology.

5. In medical matter roman is used instead of italic for scientific terms.

6. For names of stars or constellations in astronomical matter.

7. In resolutions for the word Resolved.

In MS. one line drawn beneath a word or sentence signifies that it is to be put in italic.

{65}

ABBREVIATIONS

DATES

DATES are not usually abbreviated in writing or in regular text matter; but when necessary the following rules may be followed:

1. Do not use st, d, rd, or th after a date given in figures; e.g., June 3, not June 3d or 3rd. If a date is spelled out, the rule is as follows: e.g., June the third, not June three.

2. Do not use ult., inst., or prox., but always name the month: e.g., Oct. 25, not 25th ult., Nov. 10, not 10th inst.

3. Use generally accepted abbreviations for the names of months when the day of the month is also given, and prefer dates in order of day, month, and year: e.g., 7 Jan., 1912. When the name of the month is used alone or followed only by the year, do not abbreviate: e.g., February, 1912, not Feb., 1912.

4. For ordinary purposes use these as the generally accepted abbreviations for the months and days of the week:

- Jan.

- Feb.

- Mar.

- Apr.

- May

- June

- July

- Aug.

- Sept.

- Oct.

- Nov.

- Dec.

- Sun.

- Mon.

- Tues.

- Wed.

- Thurs.

- Fri.

- Sat.

5. In tables and wherever matter must be greatly condensed use the Dewey dates, {66} which are the briefest possible without ambiguity, in the order of (a) day of week, (b) day of month, (c) month, (d) year. These abbreviations are not desirable except in tabular matter.

- Ja.

- F.

- Mr.

- Ap.

- My.

- Je.

- Ju.

- Ag.

- S.

- O.

- N.

- D.

- Sn.

- M.

- Tu.

- W.

- Th.

- F.

- St.

PROPER NAMES

1. Abbreviate company in firm names: e.g., John Brown & Co.

2. Spell out names of companies, railroads, etc., using the ampersand (&) only between proper names: e.g., Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company; Norfolk & Western Railroad; but American Smelting and Refining Company. If names of railroads are abbreviated, use no space between the letters: e.g., N.Y., N.H. & H.R.R.

3. Abbreviate United States when immediately associated with the name of an officer of the army or navy, as Lieut. John Doe, U.S.A.; when it is the name of an organization of the army or navy, as First Regiment U.S.V.; when preceding the name of a government vessel, as U.S.S. Brooklyn.

4. In referring to plays, specify act, scene, and line, also part if necessary: e.g., 2 Henry IV, I, ii, 1–7.

5. Christian names should be spelled in full, as John, George, Charles, except in an {67} original signature, or when following copy in a quotation.

6. When necessary to abbreviate Christian names, use the forms Dan., Edw., Sam., Thos., etc. Alex, Ben, Ed, and Sam are not always abbreviations, and copy should be followed as regards period. Use the following list:

Alex. | Alexander
And. | Andrew
Anth. | Anthony
Ap. | Appius
Arch. | Archibald
Aug. | August, Augustus
Benj. | Benjamin
C. | Caesar
Caes. Aug. | Caesar Augustus
Cath. | Catherine
Chas. | Charles
Dan. | Daniel
Eben. | Ebenezer
Edm. | Edmund
Edw. | Edward
Eliz. | Elizabeth
Esd. | Esdras
Esth. | Esther
Ez. | Ezra
Ezek. | Ezekiel
Ferd. | Ferdinand
Fran. | Francis
Fred. | Frederic, Frederick
Geo. | George
Herbt. | Herbert
Hos. | Hosea
Jas. | James
Jona. | Jonathan
Jos. | Joseph
Josh. | Joshua
Matt. | Matthew
Nath. | Nathaniel
Pet. | Peter
Phil. | Philip, Philander
Philem. | Philemon
Reg. | Reginald
Richd. | Richard
Robt. | Robert
Sam. | Samuel
Theo. | Theodore
Thos. | Thomas
Tim. | Timothy
Wm. | William

TITLES

1. In ordinary body matter use generally accepted abbreviations of titles when they are immediately prefixed to names.

2. Do not abbreviate a title used as part of a name: e.g., Bishop Lawrence, not Bp. Lawrence.

3. Such titles as Mr., Mrs., Messrs., Gen., Dr., Hon., Rev., when prefixed to names, may be abbreviated; but Colonel, Major, Professor, President, ex-President, etc., are better spelled in full. Compound titles, such as Major-General, Lieutenant-Colonel, Rear-Admiral, etc., should also be spelled and both {69} words capitalized. Where a person has been mentioned by name and title, and is afterward mentioned by title only, the title should be capitalized. Where initials of a name are used, abbreviate the title: e.g., Col. T. G. Benson, of the Second Illinois Regiment, has returned from Havana. The Colonel’s friends gave him a warm reception.

4. When the names of sovereigns of a country are mentioned only occasionally, such names may be given in full: e.g., George the Fifth, Charles the First. When such names occur frequently, they may be printed with roman numerals without a period: e.g., George V, Charles I

5. The following is a full list of the usual abbreviations:

A.B. or B.A.

(Artium Baccalaureus) Bachelor of Arts

Abp.

Archbishop

A.C.

Archchancellor

A.D.

Archduke

A.D.C.

Aide-de-camp

Adjt.

Adjutant

Adm.

Admiral

Admr.

Administrator

Admx., Admrx.

Administratrix

Adv.

Advocate

Agt.

Agent

Aldm.

Alderman

A.M. or M.A.

(Artium Magister) Master of Arts

Amb.

Ambassador

A.P.A.

American Protective Association

Asst.

Assistant

A.T.

Archtreasurer

Atty.

Attorney

B.A. or A.B.

Bachelor of Arts

Bart.

Baronet

B.C.L.

Bachelor of Civil Law

B.D.

(Baccalaureus Divinitatis) Bachelor of Divinity

B.LL.

(Baccalaureus Legum) Bachelor of Laws

B.M.

(Baccalaureus Medicinae) Bachelor of Medicine

Bp.

Bishop

B.R.

(Banco Regis or Reginae) the King’s or Queen’s Bench

Brig.-Gen.

Brigadier-General

Bro(s).

Brother(s)

B.S.

Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Surgery

B.V.

(Beata Virgo) Blessed Virgin

Cantab.

(Cantabrigia) Cambridge

Capt.

Captain

Capt.-Gen.

Captain-General

Cash.

Cashier

C.B.

Companion of the Bath

C.C.P.

Court of Common Pleas

C.E.

Civil Engineer

C.J.

Chief Justice

C.M.G.

Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George

Col.

Colonel

Com.

Commander, Commodore

Cor. Sec.

Corresponding Secretary

Corp.

Corporal

C.S.

Court of Sessions

C.S.

(Custos Sigilli) Keeper of the Seal

D.C.L.

Doctor of Civil Law

D.D.

Doctor of Divinity

D.D.S.

Doctor of Dental Surgery

Dea.

Deacon

Dep.

Deputy

D.F.

Defender of the Faith

D.M.

Doctor of Music

Dr.

Doctor

D.Sc.

Doctor of Science

D.T.

(Doctor Theologiae) Doctor of Divinity

D.V.M. or M.D.V.

Doctor of Veterinary Medicine

E.

(after titles) Edinburgh

Esq.

Esquire

F.D.

(Fidei Defensor) Defender of the Faith

F.G.S.

Fellow of the Geological Society

Fr.

Father

F.R.G.S.

Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society

F.R.S.

Fellow of the Royal Society

F.R.S.A.

Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts

F.S.A.

Fellow of the Society of Arts

G.C.B.

Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath

G.C.H.

Knight of the Grand Cross of Hanover

G.C.M.G.

Knight of the Grand Cross, Order of St. Michael and St. George

Gen.

General

Gov.

Governor

Govt.

Government

G.R.

(Georgius Rex) King George

H.B.M.

His or Her Britannic Majesty

H.M.

His or Her Majesty

H.M.S.

His or Her Majesty’s Service

Hon.

Honorable

H.R.

House of Representatives

H.R.E.

Holy Roman Emperor

H.R.H.

His or Her Royal Highness

H.S.H.

His or Her Serene Highness

I.N.R.I.

(Jesus Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum) Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews

Insp.

Inspector

Insp. Gen.

Inspector General

I.O.O.F.

Independent Order of Odd Fellows

J.A.

Judge-Advocate

J.P.

Justice of the Peace

J. Prob.

Judge of the Probate

Jr. or Jun.

Junior

K.

King

K.A.

Knight of St. Andrew, in Russia

K.A.N.

Knight of Alexander Newski, in Russia

K.B.

King’s Bench; Knight of the Bath

K.B.A.

Knight of St. Bento d’Avis, in Portugal

K.B.E.

Knight of the Black Eagle, in Prussia

K.C.

King’s Council; Knight of the Crescent, in Turkey

K.C.B.

Knight Commander of the Bath

K.C.H.

Knight Commander of Hanover

K.C.M.G.

Knight Commander of Order of St. Michael and St. George

K.C.S.

Knight of Charles III, in Spain

K.E.

Knight of the Elephant, in Denmark

K.F.

Knight of Ferdinand of Spain

K.F.M.

Knight of Ferdinand and Merit, in Sicily

K.G.

Knight of the Garter

K.G.C.

Knight of the Grand Cross

K.G.C.B.

Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath

K.G.F.

Knight of the Golden Fleece

K.G.H.

Knight of the Guelph of Hanover

K.G.V.

Knight of Gustavus Vasa of Sweden

K.H.

Knight of Hanover

K.J.

Knight of St. Joachim

K.L.H.

Knight of the Legion of Honor

K.M.

Knight of Malta

K. Mess.

King’s Messenger

K.M.H.

Knight of Merit, in Holstein

K.M.J.

Knight of Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria

K.M.T.

Knight of Maria Theresa of Austria

K.N.S.

Knight of the Royal North Star, in Sweden

K.P.

Knight of St. Patrick

K.R.E.

Knight of the Red Eagle, in Prussia

K.S.

Knight of the Sword, in Sweden

K.S.A.

Knight of St. Anne of Russia

K.S.E.

Knight of St. Esprit, in France

K.S.F.

Knight of St. Fernando of Spain

K.S.F.M.

Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit, in Naples

K.S.G.

Knight of St. George of Russia

K.S.H.

Knight of St. Hubert of Bavaria

K.S.J.

Knight of St. Janarius of Naples

K.S.L.

Knight of the Sun and Lion, in Persia

K.S.M. & S.G.

Knight of St. Michael and St. George of the Ionian Isles

K.S.P.

Knight of St. Stanislaus of Poland

K.S.S.

Knight of the Southern Star of the Brazils; Knight of the Sword, in Sweden

K.S.W.

Knight of St. Wladimir of Russia

Kt.

Knight

K.T.

Knight of the Thistle

K.T.S.

Knight of the Tower and Sword, in Portugal

K.W.

Knight of William of the Netherlands

K.W.E.

Knight of the White Eagle, in Poland

L.

(after titles) London

L.C.

Lord Chancellor

L.C.J.

Lord Chief Justice

Leg.

Legate

Legis.

Legislature

Lieut.

Lieutenant

Lieut.-Col.

Lieutenant-Colonel

Lieut.-Gen.

Lieutenant-General

Litt.D.

(Litterarum Doctor) Doctor of Literature

LL.B.

(Legum Baccalaureus) Bachelor of Laws

LL.D.

(Legum Doctor) Doctor of Laws

M.

Monsieur

M.A.

Master of Arts

Maj.

Major

Maj.-Gen.

Major-General

M.B.

(Medicinae Baccalaureus) Bachelor of Medicine; (Musicae Baccalaureus) Bachelor of Music

M.C.

Member of Congress

M.D.

(Medicinae Doctor) Doctor of Medicine

Messrs.

Messieurs

Mgr.

Manager; Monsignor

Min. Plen.

Minister Plenipotentiary

Mlle.

Mademoiselle

Mme.

Madame

M.P.

Member of Parliament

M.R.

Master of the Rolls

Mr.

Mister or Master

Mrs.

Mistress

Mus. Doc.

Doctor of Music

Oxon.

(Oxonensis) Oxford

P.C.

(Patres Conscripti) Conscript Fathers; Senators; Privy Counsellor

Ph.D.

Doctor of Philosophy

Ph.G.

Graduate in Pharmacy

P.M.

Postmaster

P.M.G.

Postmaster-General

P.R.A.

President of the Royal Academy

Pres.

President

Prof.

Professor

Prov.

Provost

P.R.S.

President of the Royal Society

Q.

Queen

Q.M.

Quartermaster

R.A.

Royal Academician

R.E.

Royal Engineers

Reg. Prof.

Regius Professor

Rev.

Reverend

R.M.

Royal Marines

R.N.

Royal Navy

R.N.O.

(Riddare af Nordstjerneorden) Knight of the Order of Polar Star

R.S.S.

(Regiae Societatis Socius) Fellow of the Royal Society

Rt. Hon.

Right Honorable

Rt. Rev.

Right Reverend

Rt. Wpful.

Right Worshipful

R.W.

Right Worthy

R.W.O.

(Riddare af Wasa Orden) Knight of the Order of Wasa

Sec.

Secretary

Sec. Leg.

Secretary of Legation

Serg.

Sergeant

Serg.-Maj.

Sergeant-Major

S.J.

Society of Jesus

S.J.C.

Supreme Judicial Court

Sol.

Solicitor

Sol.-Gen.

Solicitor-General

Sr., Sen.

Senior

S.R.S.

(Societatis Regiae Socius) Fellow of the Royal Society

S.T.D.

(Sacrae Theologiae Doctor) Doctor of Divinity

S.T.P.

(Sacrae Theologiae Professor) Professor of Divinity

St.

Saint, Street

Supt.

Superintendent

Tr(s).

Trustee(s)

Treas.

Treasurer

U.J.C.

(Utriusque Juris Doctor) Doctor of both Laws

V.C.

Vice-Chancellor

V.D.M.

(Verbi Dei Minister) Preacher of the Word

Vice-Pres.

Vice-President

Visc.

Viscount

W.S.

Writer to the Signet

{76}

6. COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS

A1

Highest class or grade

Acct.

Account

Advt., Ad.

Advertisement

Agt.

Agent

Amt.

Amount

Anon.

Anonymous

Ans.

Answer

Art.

Article

Av., Ave.

Avenue

Bal.

Balance

Bd.

Bound

Bdl.

Bundle

Bds.

Boards

Bldg.

Building

B.O.

Buyer’s Option

Bro(s).

Brother; Brothers

Chap.

Chapter

C.I.F.

Cost, insurance, freight

Co.

Company

C.O.D.

Cash on Delivery

Cr.

Creditor

Dept.

Department

Do.

Ditto, the same

Dr.

Debtor

E.E.

Errors excepted

E.O.D.

Every other day

E. & O.E.

Errors and omissions excepted

Etc.

(Et cetera) and so forth

Ex., Exch.

Exchange

Exp.

Express

Fgt.

Freight

F.O.B.

Free on board

H.

Hour

H.P.

Half pay, horse-power

Incor.

Incorporated

Ins.

Insurance

K.D.

Knock down (of furniture, etc.)

L.P.

Large paper

Memo.

Memorandum

Mfg.

Manufacturing

Mfr.

Manufacturer

Min.

Minute

No.

(numero) number

O.K.

All right

Payt.

Payment

Pd.

Paid

Per an.

(Per annum) by the year

Per cent.

(Per centum) by the hundred

Pkg.

Package

Pl.

Plate, plates

Pref.

Preface

Rd.

Road

Rem.

Remarks

Rep.

Reports

R.R.

Railroad

Ry.

Railway

Ser.

Series

Sq.

Square

S.S.

Steamship, steamer

T.F.

Till forbidden

7. GEOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS

Ala.

Alabama

Alaska

Alaska

Ariz.

Arizona

Ark.

Arkansas

Austral.

Australasia

B.A.

British America

Br. Col.

British Columbia

Cal.

California

Can.

Canada

C.B.

Cape Breton

Colo.

Colorado

Conn.

Connecticut

C.W.

Canada West (Ontario)

D.C.

District of Columbia

Del.

Delaware

Den.

Denmark

E.

East (London Postal District)

East Isl.

Eastern Islands

E.C.

East Central (London Postal District)

E.I.

East Indies

Eng.

England, English

Fin.

Finland

Fla.

Florida

Ga.

Georgia

G.B.

Great Britain

Glas.

Glasgow

H.I.

Hawaiian Islands

Ia.

Iowa

Idaho

Idaho

Ill.

Illinois

Ind.

Indiana

Ind. Ter.

Indian Territory (now Oklahoma)

Ire.

Ireland

It.

Italy

Jam.

Jamaica

Jap.

Japan

Kan.

Kansas

Ky.

Kentucky

La.

Louisiana

L.C.

Lower Canada

Man.

Manitoba

Mass.

Massachusetts

Md.

Maryland

Me.

Maine

Mex.

Mexico

Mich.

Michigan

Minn.

Minnesota

Miss.

Mississippi

Mo.

Missouri

Mont.

Montana

N.

North (London Postal District)

N.A.

North America

N.B.

New Brunswick; North Britain (Scotland)

N.C.

North Carolina

N. Dak.

North Dakota

N.E.

New England; Northeast (London Postal District)

Neb.

Nebraska

Neth.

Netherlands

Nev.

Nevada

N.F.

Newfoundland

N.H.

New Hampshire

N.J.

New Jersey

N. Mex.

New Mexico

N.S.

Nova Scotia

N.W.

Northwest (London Postal District)

N.Y.

New York

N.Y.C.

New York City

N. Zeal.

New Zealand

O.

Ohio

Okla.

Oklahoma

Ont.

Ontario

Ore.

Oregon

Pa.

Pennsylvania

Pal.

Palestine

P.D.

Postal District (London)

P.E.I.

Prince Edward Island

Per.

Persia

Phila.

Philadelphia

P.I.

Philippine Islands

Port.

Portugal

P.R.

Porto Rico

Prus.

Prussia

Que.

Quebec

R.A.

Russian America (now Alaska)

R.I.

Rhode Island

Russ.

Russia

S.

South (London Postal District)

S.A.

South America

S.C.

South Carolina

Scot.

Scotland

Sc. Pen.

Scandinavian Peninsula

S. Dak.

South Dakota

S. E.

Southeast (London Postal District)

Sic.

Sicily

S. Isl.

Sandwich Islands

Soc. Isl.

Society Islands

S. lat.

South latitude

Sp.

Spain

Sw.

Sweden

Switz.

Switzerland

Syr.

Syria

Tenn.

Tennessee

Tex.

Texas

U.C.

Upper Canada (Ontario)

U.K.

United Kingdom

U.S.

United States

U.S.A.

United States of America

Utah

Utah

V.

Victoria

Va.

Virginia

Vt.

Vermont

W.

Welsh, West; West (London Postal District)

Wash.

Washington

W.C.

West Central (London Postal District)

W.I.

West Indies

W. lon.

West longitude

W. Va.

West Virginia

Wis.

Wisconsin

Wyo.

Wyoming

8. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS

A.C.

(Ante Christum) before Christ

A.D.

(Anno Domini) in the year of our Lord

Ad lib.

(Ad libitum) at pleasure

Adj.

Adjective

Adv.

Adverb

Aet.

(Aetatis) of age, aged

A.H.

(Anno Hegirae) in the year of the Hegira

Alt.

Altitude

A.M.

(Anno Mundi) in the year of the world; (Ante Meridiem) before noon

An.

(Anno) in the year

An. A.C.

(Anno ante Christum) in the year before Christ

Anat.

Anatomy

Anc.

Ancient

Ang.-Sax.

Anglo-Saxon

Anom.

Anomalous

Anon.

Anonymous

Ap.

Apostle

Apo.

Apogee

Apoc.

Apocalypse, Apocrypha

A.R.

(Anno regni) in the year of the reign

Arch.

Architecture

A.R.R.

(Anno regni regis) in the year of the reign of the king

Arr.

Arrival

Art.

Article

Assoc., Assn.

Association

Astrol.

Astrology

Astron.

Astronomy

A.U.C.

(anno urbis conditae) in the year of the building of the city (Rome)

Auth. Ver. or A.V.

Authorized Version (of the Bible)

Av.

Average

Ave.

Avenue

B.

(Basso) Bass; bay; born

B.C.

Before Christ

Boul.

Boulevard

B.V.

(Bene Vale) Farewell

C.

Cape

Caet. par.

(Caeteris paribus) other things being equal

Cap.

(Caput) Chapter

C. or Cent.

Centigrade

Cf.

(confer) compare

Ch.

Child or children

C.H.

Court House

Chap.

Chapter

Circ.

Circle(s)

Cit.

Citizen

Col.

Column

Coll.

College

Comp.

Companion; comparative

Cong.

Congress

C.Q.D.

Marconi distress signal

D.B.

Domesday Book

D.C.

(Da Capo) From the beginning; again

Dec.

Declination

Deg.

Degree(s)

Del.

(Delineavit) he drew it

Dem.

Democrat

D.G.

(Dei gratia) by the grace of God; (Deo gratias) thanks to God

D.V.

(Deo volente) God willing

E.

East; Eagle(s)

Ea.

Each

E.B.

English Bible (common)

Ed.

Editor, Edition

E.E.

Errors excepted

E.g.

(Exempli gratia) by way of example

Elec.

Electricity

E.N.E.

East-northeast

Ent.

Entomology

E.S.E.

East-southeast

Et al.

(Et alibi) and elsewhere; (et alii) and others

Etc.

(Et caetera) and so forth

Et seq.

(Et sequentia) the following

Ex.

Example

Exc.

Exception

F., Fahr.

Fahrenheit (thermometer)

Fec.

(Fecit) he made it

Fem. or f.

Feminine

Fig.(s)

Figure(s)

Finn.

Finnish

Fol. or f., ff.

Folio(s)

For.

Foreign

Ft.

Fort

Gent.

Gentleman

Ger.

German

Goth.

Gothic

Gr.

Greek

H.

Husband

Hdkf.

Handkerchief

H.e.

(Hoc est) that is, or, this is

Hist.

History, Historical

H.J.S.

(Hic jacet sepultus) here lies buried

H.M.P.

(Hoc monumentum posuit) erected this monument

H.R.I.P.

(Hic requiescit in pace) here lies in peace

H.S.

(Hic situs) here lies

Ibid., Ib.

(Ibidem) in the same place

Id.

(Idem) the same

I.e.

(Id est) that is

I.H.S.

First letters of ΙΗΣΟΥΣ, Greek for Jesus12

Illus.

Illustrated

Imp.

Imperative (mood)

Incog.

(Incognito) unknown

Indef.

Indefinite

Indic.

Indicative (mood)

Infin.

Infinitive (mood)

In lim.

(In limine) at the outset

In loc.

(In loco) in the place

Inst.

(Instante) the current month

Int.

Interest

Interj.

Interjection

In trans.

(In transitu) on the passage

Ion.

Ionic

Ir.

Irish

Irreg.

Irregular

Isl.

Island

Ital.

Italic

Itin.

Itinerary

J.H.S.

See I.H.S.

Jour.

Journal

Lat.

Latin, latitude

L.c.

(Loco citato) in the place cited

L.l.

(Loco laudato) in the place quoted

Lon. or Long.

Longitude

L.S.

(Locus sigilli) place of the seal

LXX

The Septuagint

M.

(Meridies) noon

M.

Married

Mem.

Memorandum, Memoranda

Mgr.

Manager

Misc.

Miscellaneous

Mo.(s)

Month, months

M.S.

(Memoriae sacrum) sacred to the memory

MS.

(Manuscriptum) manuscript

MSS.

Manuscripts

Mt.

Mount, Mont

Myth.

Mythology

N.

Noun; note(s)

Nat.

National

Naut.

Nautical

N.B.

(Nota Bene) note well

Nem. con. or
nem. diss.

(Nemine contradicente or nemine dissentiente) none opposing

N.l.

(Non liquet) it does not appear

N. lat.

North latitude

N.N.E.

North-northeast

N.N.W.

North-northwest

Nom.

Nominative

Nol. pros.

(Nolle prosequi) indicates in law that a complaint will not be prosecuted

N.S.

New Style (after 1752)

N.T.

New Testament

N.u.

name(s) unknown

N.V.M.

Nativity of the Virgin Mary

N.W.

Northwest

Ob.

(Obiit) he or she died

Obj.

Objective (case)

Obs.

Obsolete

O.F.

Odd Fellow(s)

Olym.

Olympiad

O.H.M.S.

On His Majesty’s Service

Op.

Opposite

O.S.

Old Style (before 1752)

O.T.

Old Testament

P. or pp.

Page or pages

Par. or ¶

Paragraph

Par. Pas.

Parallel Passage(s)

Parl.

Parliament

Part.

Participle

Partic.

Particle

Pass.

Passive (voice)

Pen.

Peninsula

Pent.

Pentecost

Perf.

Perfect (tense)

Pers.

Person

Pers. pron.

Personal Pronoun

Persp.

Perspective

Phil.

Philosophy

Pinx.

(Pinxit) he painted it

Pl.

Plate(s)

Plur.

Plural

Plup.

Pluperfect

Plff.

Plaintiff

P.M.

(Post meridiem) afternoon to midnight

P.O.

Post-office

Pop.

Population

Posit.

Positive

P.p.

Past participle

P.P.C.

(Pour prendre congé) to take leave

P. pr.

Participle present

Pro tem.

(Pro tempore) for the time being

P.R.

(Populus Romanus) the Roman people

Pret.

Preterite tense

Pron.

Pronoun

Pr. p.

Present participle

Pref.

Preface

P.S.

Privy Seal

P.T.O.

Please turn over

Pt.

Point

Pub.

Publisher

Pub. Doc.

Public Document(s)

Q.

Question

Q.B.

Queen’s Bench

Q.C.

Queen’s College; Queen’s Council

Q.d.

(Quasi dicat) as if he should say; (Quasi dictum) as if said; (Quasi dixisset) as if he had said

Q.E.

(Quod est) which is

Q.E.D.

(Quod erat demonstrandum) which was to be proved

Q.E.F.

(Quod erat faciendum) which was to be done

Q.l.

(Quantum libet) as much as you please

Q. Mess.

Queen’s Messenger

Qm.

(Quomodo) by what means, how

Q.p. or q. pl.

(Quantum placet) as much as you please

Qr.

Quarter

Q.s.

(Quantum sufficit) a sufficient quantity

Q.v.

(Quantum vis) as much as you will

Q.v.

(Quod vide) which see

Qy.

Query

R., Reaum

Reaumur (thermometer)

R.

(Regina) Queen; (Rex) King

Rem.

Remark(s)

R.A.

Royal Academy; Royal Academician; Royal Artillery

R. E.

Royal Engineers

Recd.

Received

Rect.

Rector

Ref.

Reformation; Reformed

Ref. Ch.

Reformed Church

Ref.

Reference

Regr.

Registrar

Regt.

Regiment

Rel. pron.

Relative Pronoun

Rep.

Representative

Repub.

Republican

R.M.

Royal Marines

R.N.

Royal Navy

Ro.

(Recto) right-hand page

Rom. Cath.

Roman Catholic

R.P.

(Res Publica) Republic

Ru.

Runic

S.

Solo (in Italian music); South

S. SS.

Section(s), Saint(s)

S.a.

(Secundum artem) according to art

Sax.

Saxon

S.C.

(Senatus consultum) a decree of the Senate

S.C

(in law) same case

Sch.

Schooner(s)

Schol.

(Scholium) a note

Sci.

Science

Sculp.

(Sculpsit) he engraved

S.E.

Southeast

Sen.

Senate; Senator

Seq. or sq.

(Sequente) and in what follows

Seqq. or sqq.

(Sequentibus) and in the following (places)

Ser.

Series

Shak.

Shakspere

Sing.

Singular (number)

S.J.C.

Supreme Judicial Court

S. lat.

South latitude

S.O.S.

Marconi distress signal

S.P.

(Sine prole) without issue

Sp. gr.

Specific gravity

S.P.Q.R.

(Senatus Populusque Romanus) the Senate and the Roman People

S.R.I.

(Sacrum Romanum Imperium) the Holy Roman Empire

S.R.S.

(Societatis Regiae Socius) Fellow of the Royal Society

S.S.

Sunday School

S.S.E.

South-southeast

S.S.W.

South-southwest

St.

Saint; street

Stat.

Statute(s)

Ster.

Sterling

Subj.

Subjunctive

Subst.

Substantive

Su.-Goth.

Suio-Gothic

Super.

Superfine

Superl.

Superlative

S.W.

Southwest

T.

Tenor (in music); (Tutti) the whole orchestra, after a solo

Ter.

Territory

Term.

Termination

Theor.

Theorem

Tr.

Translator; transpose

Um.

Unmarried

Univ.

University

U.S.A.

United States Army

U.S.M.

United States Mail

U.S.N.

United States Navy

U.S.S.

United States Ship

U.s.

(Ut supra) as above

Vat.

Vatican

V.a.

Verb active

V. aux.

Verb auxiliary

V. def.

Verb defective

V. dep.

Verb deponent

Ven.

Venerable

V.g.

(Verbi gratiâ) for example

V. imp.

Verb impersonal

V. in

Verb intransitive

V. irr.

Verb irregular

V. n.

Verb neuter

Vo.

(Verso) left-hand page

Voc.

Vocative

Vol.

Volume

V. r.

Verb reflexive

V. tr.

Verb transitive

V.

Vulgate (Version)

W.

West; wife

W. lon.

West longitude

W.N.W.

West-northwest

W.S.W.

West-southwest

Xmas

Christmas

Zoöl.

Zoölogy

12 Erroneously Jesus hominum Salvator.

{90}

9. SCRIPTURAL ABBREVIATIONS

OLD TESTAMENT (O. T.)

- Gen.

- Exod.

- Lev.

- Num.

- Deut.

- Josh.

- Judg.

- Ruth

- I and II Sam.

- I and II Kings

- I and II Chron.

- Ezra

- Neh.

- Esth.

- Job

- Ps. (Pss.)

- Prov.

- Eccles.

- Song of Sol. (or Cant.)

- Isa.

- Jer.

- Lam.

- Ezek.

- Dan.

- Hos.

- Joel

- Amos

- Obad.

- Jonah

- Mic.

- Nah.

- Hab.

- Zeph.

- Hag.

- Zech.

- Mal.

NEW TESTAMENT (N. T.)

- Matt.

- Mark

- Luke

- John

- Acts

- Rom.

- I and II Cor.

- Gal.

- Eph.

- Phil.

- Col.

- I and II Thess.

- I and II Tim.

- Titus

- Philem.

- Heb.

- Jas.

- I and II Pet.

- I, II, and III John

- Jude

- Rev.

APOCRYPHA

- I and II Esd.

- Tob. = Tobit

- Jud. = Judith

- Rest of Esther

- Wisd. of Sol.

- Eccles.

- Bar.

- Song of Three Children

- Sus.

- Bel and Dragon

- Pr. of Man.

- I, II, II, and IV Macc.

10. MONETARY SIGNS

$ | Dollar or dollars
cts. | Cents
gn. | Guinea
£ (English) | Pound or pounds
∠ or s. | Shilling or shillings
d. | (Denarius) penny or pence
fr. | Franc or francs
c. (French) | Centime or centimes
m. | Mark or marks
pf. | Pfennig or pfennigs
cr. (Austrian) | Crown or crowns
hr. | Heller or hellers
rub. | Ruble or rubles
kop. | Kopec or kopecs
kr. (Danish) | Crown or crowns
öro, öre | Oro or öre
£ (Italian) | Lira or lire
c. (Italian) | Centesimo or centesimi

11. MATHEMATICAL SIGNS

+ | Plus
− | Minus
± | Plus or minus
| Minus or plus
× | Multiplied by13
÷ | Divided by
= | Equal to
≠ | Not equal to
≡ | Identical with
| Not identical with
≅ | Congruent to
| Greater than
| Less than
| The difference between
| Is equivalent to
∫ | Integration
: and : : | Proportion
∝ | Varies as
| Approaches as a limit
∞ | Infinity
∴ | Therefore
| Because
… | Continuation
√ | The radical sign
⊥ | Perpendicular to
| Factorial sign
| Parallel
| Arc of circle
° | Degree of circle
′ | Minute of circle
″ | Second of circle
∠ | Angle
| Right angle
| Square
| Rectangle
| Parallelogram
| Triangle

13 This is also indicated algebraically by a dot, as, a · b

12. MEDICAL SIGNS

āā | (ἀνά) of each
| (Recipe) take
, i | Ounce, one ounce
ss | Half an ounce
iss | One ounce and a half
ij | Two ounces
| Drachm
| Scruple
| (Octavius) Pint
| Fluid ounce
| Fluid drachm
m. | Minim or drop

{93}

NUMERALS

ACCORDING to Astle, the combination of Greek numerical characters was not well known to the Latins before the thirteenth century, although Greek numerical characters were frequently used in France and Germany in episcopal letters, and continued to the eleventh century. But of all the Greek ciphers the episemon βαῦ was most in use with the Latins; it gradually assumed the form of G with a tail, for so it appears in a Latin inscription of the year 296. It is found to have been used in the fifth century in Latin MSS. It was reckoned for 6, and this value has been evinced by such a number of monumental proofs, that there is no room to give it any other. Some of the learned, with even Mabillon, have been mistaken in estimating it as 5, but in a posthumous work he acknowledges his error.

Those authors were led into this error by the medals of the Emperor Justinian having the episemon for 5; but it is a certain fact that the coiners had been mistaken and confounded it with the tailed U, for the episemon was still in use in the fourth century, and among the Latins was estimated as 6, but {94} under a form somewhat different. Whenever it appears in other monuments of the western nations of Europe of that very century and the following, it is rarely used to express any number except 5.

The Etruscans also used their letters for indicating numbers by writing them from right to left, and the ancient Danes copied the example in the application of their letters.

The Romans, when they borrowed arts and sciences from the Greeks, learned also their method of using alphabetical numeration. This custom, however, was not very ancient among them. Before writing was yet current with them, they made use of nails for reckoning years, and the method of driving those nails became in process of time a ceremony of their religion. The first eight Roman numerals were composed of the I and the V. The Roman ten was composed of the V proper and the V inverted (), which characters served to reckon as far as forty; but when writing became more general, I, V, X, L, C, D, and M were the only characters appropriated to the indication of numbers. The above seven letters, in their most extensive combination, produce six hundred and sixty-six thousand, ranged thus, DCLXVIM. Some, however, contend that the Romans were strangers to any higher number than 100,000. The want of ciphers obliged them to double, treble, and multiply {95} their numerical characters four-fold, according as they had occasion to make them express units, tens, hundreds, etc. For the sake of brevity they had recourse to another expedient: by drawing a small line over any of their numeral characters they made them stand for as many thousands as they contained units. Thus a small line over Ī made it 1000, and over expressed 10,000, etc.

When the Romans wrote several units together in succession, the first and last were longer than the rest IIIIII; thus vir after those six units signified sex-vir. D stood for 500, and the perpendicular line of this letter was sometimes separated from the body thus (I,) without lessening its value. M, whether capital or uncial, expressed 1000. In the uncial form it sometimes assumed that of one of those figures, CI, CD, ∞, . The cumbent X was also used to signify a similar number.

In ancient MSS. 4 is written IIII and not IV, 9 thus VIIII and not IX, etc. Instead of V five units, IIIII, were sometimes used in the eighth century. Half was expressed by an S at the end of the figures, CIIS was put 102 1⁄2. This S sometimes appeared in the form of our 5.

In some old MSS. those numerical figures LXL are used to express 90. The Roman numeral letters were generally used both in England, France, Italy, and Germany, from the earliest times to the middle of the fifteenth century. {96}

The ancient people of Spain made use of the Roman ciphers. The X with the top of the right-hand stroke in form of a semi-circle reckoned for 40; it merits the more particular notice as it has misled many of the learned. The Roman ciphers, however, were continued in use with the Spaniards until the fifteenth century. The Germans used the Roman ciphers for a long time, nearly in the same manner as the French.

The points after the Roman ciphers were exceedingly various, and never rightly fixed. It is not known when the ancient custom was first introduced of placing an O at top immediately after the Roman characters, as Aº Mº Lº VIº etc.

NUMERAL LETTERS

| Roman | Arabic
Unus, a, um | I | 1
Duo, ae, o | II | 2
Tres, ia | III | 3
Quatuor | IV [IIII] | 4
Quinque | V | 5
Sex | VI | 6
Septem | VII | 7
Octo | VIII | 8
Novem | IX | 9
Decem | X | 10
Undecim | XI | 11
Duodecim | XII | 12
Tredecim | XIII | 13
Quatuordecim | XIV | 14
Quindecim | XV | 15
Se(sex)decim | XVI | 16
Septemdecim | XVII | 17

Octodecim or
Duodeviginti

XVIII

18

Novemdecim or
Undeviginti

XIX

19

Viginti | XX | 20
Triginta | XXX | 30
Quadraginta | XL | 40
Quinquaginta | L | 50
Sexaginta | LX | 60
Septuaginta | LXX | 70
Octoginta | LXXX | 80
Nonaginta | XC | 90
Centum | C | 100
Ducenti-ae-a | CC | 200
Trecenti-ae-a | CCC | 300
Quadringenti-ae-a | CCCC | 400
Quingenti-ae-a | I or D | 500
Sexcenti-ae-a | DC | 600
Septingenti-ae-a | DCC | 700
Octingenti-ae-a | DCCC | 800
Nongenti-ae-a | DCCCC or CM | 900
Mille | M or CI | 1000

Duo millia or
Bis mille

MM

2000

Tria millia or
Ter mille

MMM

3000

Quatuor millia or
Quater mille

MMMM

4000

Quinque millia or
Quinquies mille

I or

5000

Decem millia or
Decies mille

CCI or

10,000

Quinquaginta millia or
Quinquaquies mille

I or

50,000

Centum millia or
Centies mille

CCCI or

100,000

Quingenta millia or
Quingenties mille

I or

500,000

Decies centena millia | CCCCI or | 1,000,000

{98}

If the lesser number is placed before the greater, the lesser is to be deducted from the greater; thus IV signifies one less than 5, i.e., 4; IX, 9; XC, 90.

If the lesser number be placed after the greater, the lesser is to be added to the greater; thus VI signifies one more than 5, i.e., 6; XI, 11; CX, 110.

A horizontal stroke over a numeral denotes a thousand; thus signifies five thousand; , fifty thousand; , a thousand times a thousand, or a million.

I, signifies one, because it is the smallest letter.

V, five, because it is sometimes used for U, the fifth vowel.

X, ten, because it represents two V’S.

L, fifty, from its resemblance to the lower half of C.

C, a hundred, centum.

I or D, five hundred, the half of CI.

M or CI, a thousand, from mille. The latter figures joined at the top, , formed the ancient M.

{99}

CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION

CORRECTNESS is the primary requisite of spoken or written discourse. Language must not be only understood, but it must convey all the meaning which the writer intends to express. As a guide to those who are bewildered by the many cases of divided usage, the following adaptation of certain canons, framed by Dr. Campbell over a century ago and used as a basis by every later writer on Rhetoric, are here given:

Canon I. — When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference should be given to the latter: e.g., admittance is better than admission, as the latter word also means “confession”; relative is to be preferred to relation, as the latter also means the telling of a story.

Canon II. — In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy of the language: might better should be preferred to had better, and would rather is better than had rather.

Canon III. — The simpler and briefer form should be preferred, other things being equal: {100} e.g., omit the bracketed words in expressions such as, open [up], meet [together], follow [after], examine [into], trace [out], bridge [over], crave [for], etc.

Canon IV. — Between two forms of expression in equally good use, prefer the one which is more euphonious: e.g., most beautiful is better than beautifullest, and more free is to be preferred to freer.

Canon V. — In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer that which conforms to the older usage: e.g., begin is better than commence.

Familiarity with the writings of those authors whose style is accepted as conforming to the standards of good usage is an essential to all those who seek accuracy in correct expression, and the following authors may be studied with this in mind: Addison, Matthew Arnold, Burke, DeQuincey, George Eliot, Emerson, Hawthorne, Holmes, Irving, Macaulay, John Stuart Mill, Newman, Poe, Ruskin, Stevenson, and Thackeray.

The various standard dictionaries may be consulted regarding words which are questionable when measured by good usage. The function of the dictionary is to record all words in general use, but a careful record is made as to the classes to which the various words belong. Good usage, for instance, does not recognize the word vim, yet it will be found in the Century Dictionary; but at {101} the end of the definition an entry [Colloq.] is placed, showing that it is authorized only by colloquial use.

The following list of words and phrases which are most commonly misused will be found useful. The correct words are added in brackets:

Accept, see Except

Admire, should not be used to express delight: e.g., I should admire [be delighted] to go to California

Admit, see Confess

ADVERBS: should usually be placed next to the words they modify. (See also Infinitive)

Affable, means “easy to speak to,” and should not be used for agreeable

Affect, should not be confused with effect: e.g., She was deeply affected by the news; or The news had a serious effect upon her; or The effect of the news was serious

Aggravate, should not be used for annoy or vex. It means “to make worse”: e.g., His cold was aggravated by the exposure

Ain’t, is a contraction of am not. It is inelegant though grammatically correct to say, I ain’t, but it is absolutely wrong to say, He ain’t, etc.

All right, should never be written alright

Alternative, should not be used in speaking of one of more than two things

And, should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a position as to interfere with the construction: e.g., I acknowledge the receipt of your letter, (and) for which I send you my cordial thanks. Omit the conjunction

Any place, should be written anywhere

Apparently, is used of what seems to be real, but may not be so; evidently of that which both seems and is real {102}

Apt, means skilful and should not be used for likely. He is apt to be here soon should be He is likely to be here soon; He is an apt pupil is correct

ARTICLES: when superfluous, are misleading and should be omitted; but it is more frequently the case that necessary articles are omitted: e.g., The army and navy signifies a single organization. Insert a before navy

As, should not be used as a causal conjunction: e.g., Do not expect me (as) I am too uncertain of my time. The word as stands here as a contraction of inasmuch as. Substitute a semicolon: e.g., Do not expect me; I am too uncertain of my time.

As . . . as, see So . . . as

At, is often incorrectly used for in: e.g., They are living at [in] Florence

At length, does not mean the same as at last. Say At length he showed signs of relenting, and At last he relented

Aught, is frequently confused with naught. It means “anything,” whereas the symbol 0 means “nothing”

Avail, should be used with of only with some form of be; otherwise to is the proper word: e.g., He called lustily, but of [to] no avail; or He called lustily, but [it was] of no avail

Aware, is used in relation to things outside of ourselves; conscious in relation to sensations or things within ourselves

Awful, should not be used loosely. It means “inspiring with awe.” To say I had an awfully good time is as ridiculous as it is meaningless

Badly, should not be used for very much or a great deal. The expression, If you don’t care to do a thing very badly, do it very badly, shows the absurdity. Do not confuse the adjective with the adverb. He looks badly means “He makes a bad use of his eyes.” He looks bad is correct

Bank on, a slang expression not recognized by good usage. Say rely on or trust in {103}

Beg, should never be used without the word leave, when asking permission. In correspondence one often sees the expressions, I beg to state, I beg to differ. One should say, I beg leave to state, I beg leave to differ

Bring, see Take

But, is sometimes used as a preposition, and when so used takes the objective case: e.g., The invitation included all but him is correct

Can, denotes power, and should not be used for may, which denotes permission. The following sentence shows the correct use of both words: He may do it if he can

Cannot but, should not be used interchangeably with can but, as the two expressions differ in meaning: e.g., I can but try means “All I can do is to try”; I cannot but try means “I cannot help trying”

Can’t seem, should not be used for seem unable: e.g., I can’t seem [seem unable] to find it

CASE: the nominative is sometimes wrongly used for the objective case: e.g., Let He [Him] who made thee answer that

Childlike, means that belonging to the child; childish, means the weakness of the child

Come, see Go

Common, see Mutual

Confess, should not be used in the sense of admit, in cases in which no idea of confession enters

Conscious, see Aware

Continual, meaning “frequently repeated acts,” should not be confused with continuous meaning “uninterrupted action”: e.g., Continual nagging spoils the disposition, and The continuous flowing of a stream

Deadly, which means “that which inflicts death,” should not be confused with deathly, which means “that which resembles death”: e.g., A deadly poison, and A deathly pallor {104}

Decided, means “strong,” decisive means “final.” A decided opinion does not mean the same as a decisive opinion

Definite, means “well-defined”; definitive means “final”

Demean, which signifies “to behave” oneself, should not be used for degrade or debase

Different, should never be followed by the word than. Say, Different from

Directly, should not be used for as soon as: e.g., Directly [as soon as] he arrived

Discover, is to find something which previously existed; invent is to produce something for the first time

Don’t, is a contraction of do not. One may say, I don’t, but not He don’t. Say, He doesn’t

Each other, should not be misused for one another. One may say, The two cousins were devoted to each other; or Many suggestions were made, following one another in rapid succession

Effect, see Affect

Egoists, are those who made the ego the basis of their philosophy; egotists are those who worship themselves

Either, should not be used to designate more than two persons or things. To designate one of three or more, say Any one

Enormity, describes deeds of unusual horror; enormousness describes things of unusual size

Enthuse (verb), is not recognized by good usage. I became enthused should be written I became enthusiastic

Every place, should be written everywhere

Excellent, should never be qualified as it is a superlative: e.g., most excellent, very excellent, and the like are impossible. (See also Superlatives)

Except (verb), signifies “to exclude”: e.g., Present company excepted. As a preposition it means “with the exception.” It should not be confused with accept, which signifies “to receive” {105}

Exceptional, describes a case outside the operation of a rule; exceptionable is that which is open to criticism: e.g., Exceptionable conduct is that to which exception can be taken

Expect, should not be used as a synonym for think or suppose

Falseness (of a person) is the opposite of truthfulness; falsity (of a thing) is the opposite of truth

Fix, should not be used in the sense of repair. It means “to attach”

Former, should not be used to designate one of more than two persons or things. If reference is made to one of three or more, say The first

Gentleman, should be used to designate only a person of refinement, and never as a mere designation of sex. The use of the word man is never out of place

Gentleman friend, is an expression which should be avoided, owing to the use which has been made of it. Say man friend or man friends, or gentleman of my acquaintance

Go, should not be confused with come: e.g., I will come [go] to you when you need me

Got, is said to be the most misused word in the language. I have got to go should be I am obliged to go. Have you got time? should be Have you time? etc. The verb means “to secure,” so it must be used only with this meaning: e.g., I have got the contract

Gotten, is an obsolete form. Say got

Guess, is loosely used for suppose, expect, or intend, but is avoided by the best writers

Hanged, see Hung

Hardly, should never be preceded by the negative: e.g., That is not hardly enough. Omit not

He, see Him

Healthful, means “health-giving,” as applied to articles of food; healthy is the condition of the person {106}

Her, is often misused for she: e.g., It is her [she]; Such a woman as her [she]

Him, is often misused for he: e.g., It is him [he]; Let He [Him] who made thee answer that; A style that belongs to no other than he [him]

Hoi polloi, should not be written the hoi polloi. Hoi is Greek for “the”

Honorable, should always be preceded by the: e.g., The Honorable James Brown Smith

How, should not be used for what: e.g., How [what] did you say?

Hung, should be distinguished from hanged: e.g., The man was hanged, but The flag was hung across the street

I, see Me

If, should never be used in the sense of whether or that: e.g., He is not sure if he remembers should be He is not sure whether [or that] he remembers

In, should not be used for into, when motion is implied: e.g., He stepped in [into] the boat. See also At

INFINITIVE: the verb should never be separated from to, the sign of the infinitive word, by an adverb: e.g., It is not possible for me to absolutely promise should be to promise absolutely

-ING: when using verbal nouns ending in -ing be careful to distinguish them from participles having the same ending. A verbal noun must never be preceded by an adverb: e.g., That proved of as little use as his afterward trying to explain his presence there should be as his trying afterward to explain

Inside of, is a vulgarism when used in the sense of within: e.g., The snow will be gone inside of [within] a week

Invent, see Discover

Kind, is singular. The common expression those kind is absolutely wrong. Say this kind or these kinds, that kind or those kinds

Kind of, should not be followed by the article a or an. Say What kind of man is he? not What kind of a man is he? {107}

Lady, see Gentleman

Lady friend, see Gentleman friend

Last, should not be used for latest. “Have you read my last book?” asked the author. “I hope so,” was the frank reply

Latter, signifies one of two persons or things. In making reference to one of three or more, say The last

Lay, should not be confused with lie. Hens lay, men lie

Less, is a vulgarism when used for fewer: e.g., There were less [fewer] accidents in football this season

Liable, should not be used for likely: e.g., It is liable [likely] to rain today. Its proper sense is shown in the sentence, He is liable to arrest

Like, is a vulgarism when used for as or as if: e.g., I wish I could sing like [as] you do. See also Love

Likely, means “any probability”; liable means an “unpleasant probability”

Loan, is not in accord with good usage when used as a verb: Say, He lent me a dollar, and The loan was of real assistance

Locate, is a vulgarism when used for settle. Say, He settled in Boston, and He located his business in Cambridge

Love, describes that which appeals to our affections; like, that which appeals to our taste, appetite or fancy

Luxuriant, means “superabundant”; luxurious means “consequent upon luxury”

Mad, means “insane,” and is not a synonym for angry

Man, see Gentleman

May, see Can

Me, is often wrongly used for I: e.g., Between you and I [me]; It is me [I]; You know as well as me [I]

Means, may be either singular or plural. Say, No other means was at hand, or Various means were suggested

Most, should not be used for almost

Must, should not be used for had to or was obliged: e.g., The hour arrived when he must [had to] decide. In its proper use it refers to the present or future: e.g., The hour will arrive when he must decide {108}

Mutual, should not be used in the sense of “shared in common,” as it means “reciprocal.” It can refer to but two persons or things. Mutual friendship is that which exists between two friends; common friendship that which is shared by two friends for a third

Negligence, implies failure to conform to an established custom; neglect means “a failure to act”

Neither, signifies one of two. In designating one of three or more, say No one

News, is singular in construction

Nice, should not be used loosely; as, She was nice to us. It means keenness in discrimination; as, It was a fine point, nicely considered. The incorrect use of this word is an Americanism especially offensive to the English. Oscar Wilde, when in America, remarked, “I think nice is a nasty word,” to which his hearer retorted, “I don’t think nasty is a nice word”

No place, should be written nowhere

Nor, see Or

Not . . . but, forms a double negative: e.g., I have not asked you but once should be I have asked you but once

Notorious, is not a synonym for celebrated or famous. It means “of bad repute”

Nowhere near, is a vulgarism for not nearly

NUMBER: pronouns are often used which differ in number from their antecedents: e.g., Nobody should feel that their [his] interests have been neglected; Each of the ladies, like two excellent actresses, were [was] perfect in their [her] parts [part]. Singular nouns are sometimes used with plural verbs, or the reverse: e.g., None but the brave deserve [deserves] the fair; There’s [there are] the boys

Of, is sometimes wrongly used for have: e.g., I shouldn’t of [have] come if I had known

Or, should not be used with neither. Use nor {109}

Ought, should never be combined with had: e.g., You hadn’t ought to do that should be You ought not to do that

Out loud, should never be used for aloud

Partake of, should not be used in the sense of eat. It means “to share with others”

Party, should not be used for person

Per, should not be used with English words. Say One dollar a year, or One dollar per annum

Perception, means the inlet of all the materials of knowledge; apperception means the knowledge that one possesses these materials. A man with perception knows; a man with apperception knows that he knows

PLURALS: of foreign words should be carefully ascertained: e.g., cherubim is the plural of cherub; memoranda, of memorandum; data, of datum; donne, of donna; strata, of stratum; addenda, of addendum; rubaiyat, of rubai. Do not say, A memoranda

Pretty, should not be used in a modifying sense, nor as a synonym for very: e.g., It is not as good as yours, but it is pretty [fairly] good; I didn’t hit it, but I came pretty [very] close

Propose, meaning “to offer,” should not be confused with purpose, meaning “to intend.” Say, He proposed an amendment, and I have told you what I purpose

Quite, should not be used in a modifying sense as if meaning “rather.” It is not what I expected, but it is quite good is wrong. The word means “wholly”: e.g., Not quite = not wholly; quite satisfactory = wholly satisfactory

Raise, should not be used as a noun

Rarely ever, is a vulgarism for rarely or hardly ever

Reference, should be used with with rather than in. Say, With reference to rather than In reference to {110}

Regard, see Reference

Respect, see Reference

Reverend, should always be preceded by the: e.g., The Reverend James Brown Smith

Same, should not be used as a pronoun: e.g., Your letter received, and in reply [to same] would say. Omit bracketed words

Same as, should not be used for just as or in the same way: e.g., Treat him the same [just] as you would wish to be treated

Scarcely, see Hardly

Seldom ever, see Rarely ever

Sensible of, means “having perception”; sensitive to means “affected by”

Set, should not be confused with sit. To set means “to cause to sit”: e.g., The bird sits upon the tree, and The waiter set two chairs for us

Sewage, means the contents of sewers; sewerage means the system

Shall, signifies simple expectancy in the first person, and will represents determination. This reverses with the second and third persons: e.g., EXPECTANCY, I shall (should), thou wilt (wouldst), he will (would), we shall (should), you will (would), they will (would). DETERMINATION, I will (would), thou shalt (shouldst), he shall (should), we will (would), you shall (should), they shall (should). This time-honored illustration of the misuse of these words is easily remembered: I will drown, nobody shall save me. In interrogative sentences, the forms of the future are the same as in a declarative sentence, and their proper use may be easily remembered by noting that the same auxiliary is used as is expected in the reply: e.g., Shall you go? suggests merely future action, anticipating the reply, I shall or I shall not; Will you go? shows that the speaker expects a reply of determination, I will or I will not

She, see Her {111}

Should, ought not to be used for to: e.g., I want you should [to] do this. (See also Want.) As between should and would, see Shall. The same usage obtains, except that sometimes should is used in the sense of ought: e.g., He should be here now; and would sometimes signifies habitual action: e.g., Whenever the name was mentioned he would speak slightingly of him

Show, should not be used for play: e.g., I went to a show last evening; nor in the sense of chance: e.g., He has an excellent show of winning

Show up, is a vulgarism when used for expose

Since, should not be used for ago. Say, How long ago rather than How long since

Size up, is a vulgarism when used for estimate

So, should be used sparingly to modify an adjective: e.g., I feel so unhappy. It should not be used for so that: e.g., I wrote him so [that] he understood

So . . . as, is required, rather than the correlatives as . . . as in negative statements: e.g., James is not as [so] clever as John

Some, should not be used for somewhat: e.g., The patient is some[what] better

Some place, should be written somewhere

Sort, see Kind

Sort of, should not be used for rather: e.g., I feel sort of tired is incorrect. See also Kind of

Splendid, should not be used for fine or skilful. It implies “splendor”

Start, should not be used for begin: e.g., He started [began] to speak

Stop, should not be used for stay: e.g., I am stopping [staying] with my uncle while in San Francisco

Take, is superfluous in connection with other verbs: e.g., Suppose we [take and] use the drawings we have. It should not be confused with bring: e.g., I will bring [take] it home with me; I will take [bring] the book to you tomorrow {112}

Take stock in, is a slang expression not recognized by good usage. Say rely on or trust in

TENSE: errors are often made by neglecting the principle that the time of the recorded action in the subordinate portion of a sentence is relative to the time of the principal clause. The tense of the dependent verb, therefore, is determined by its relation to the verb on which it depends: e.g., I meant to have done it should be I meant to do it; He expected to have told him should be He expected to tell him. A common mistake is made in replying to formal invitations: e.g., Mr. Robert Gorham regrets that a previous engagement will prevent [prevents] him from accepting; Mr. Gorham will be [is] happy to accept

That, see Which

Them, is often misused for they: e.g., It is them [they]

They, see Them

This, should not be used as an adverb. Say, Thus much is clear rather than This much is clear, and Having said thus much [or as much as this] . . . rather than Having said this much . . .

Through, should not be used for finished. Say, He has finished speaking rather than He is through speaking

Too, alone should not modify a past participle: e.g., He was too [much] excited to reply

Treat, should be followed by of rather than on: e.g., This volume treats of conditions in China

Try, should be followed by to rather than and: e.g., I will try and [to] get the information you desire

Ugly, should not be used in the sense of vicious or malicious. It means “repulsive to the eye.” A color may be ugly, but an ill-tempered dog is vicious

VERBS: should not be omitted: e.g., He could do it if he wished to [do it]

Very, should be used sparingly. Foreigners say that America is a country of superlatives, — if anything is good, it is very good, and if bad, it is very bad. Too {113} much emphasis weakens conversation or writing and defeats its object

Visitor, is a human caller; visitant, a supernatural one

Vocation, means “calling” or “profession”; avocation, means an interest outside one’s profession

Want, should not be used in the sense of wish: e.g., I want it really means “I feel the want of it,” or “I lack it.” An example of the correct use of both words is, China wishes the coöperation of the United States, — a coöperation which is at present wanting

Way, should not be used for away

What, is often misused for that: e.g., He has no doubt but what [that] he will succeed

Whence, means “from where.” Do not say from whence

Which, should not be used with a clause as its antecedent: e.g., He replied hotly, which was a mistake should be He replied hotly; this was a mistake. Do not use which (a neuter pronoun) to represent a masculine or feminine noun. Say whom. Between which and that, let euphony decide

Who, is often misused for whom or whose: e.g., Who [whom] did you wish to see? Washington, than whom [whose] no greater name is recorded in American history. Impersonal objects should be referred to by which rather than who

Whom, see Who and Which
Will, see Shall
Woman, see Gentleman

Womanly, means “belonging to woman as woman”; womanish means “effeminate”

Would, see Should

{114}

LETTER WRITING

ALTHOUGH it is quite improbable that there will ever be a return to the painstaking, literary art of letter writing, of which we have so many admirable examples in the past, the value of the art as a medium of expressing personality must always be recognized. The force of business competition has introduced short-cuts in business correspondence which are regrettable from a literary standpoint; the universal use of the typewriter has altered conditions; the multiplicity of social demands makes impossible the leisurely written and carefully considered letters between friends which used to be a valued expression of friendship itself. These changes in conditions have been inevitable, but they do not explain the carelessness and the evidences of ignorance of even simple rules of expression and arrangement which are too frequently apparent in the letters even of those whose position in life demands more, in this respect, than they seem able or willing to give. For this reason the present writer does not hesitate to resort to elementary outlines in making clear the basis upon which the art of letter writing rests. {115}

THE HEADING

I. Business. — 1. The stationery of a business house invariably contains in its printed heading the name of the house and the location of the business, with a space for filling in the date. The arrangement, therefore, is arbitrarily and usually correctly fixed. The name of the city or town, with street address, if required, comes first, occupying one or two lines, followed by the date, always at the right, either in the same line or in a line by itself: e.g.,

BOSTON, 12 March, 1912
or
189 State St., Boston
12 March, 1912

2. If there is no punctuation at the ends of the printed lines, there should be no point used after the date.

3. The number of the day should not be followed by st, nd, rd, d, or th: e.g., 12 March, not 12th March.

II. Informal. — 1. There is considerable latitude in the heading in informal or friendly letters. The address of the writer may be placed at the beginning or the end of the letter, or omitted altogether if well-known to the addressee.

2. The date may be at the beginning or the end, but should never be omitted.

III. Formal. — 1. In formal letters the place and date should be written at the end, on the left. {116}

THE ADDRESS

I. Business. — 1. The name and address of the addressee should be placed at the beginning of every business letter, on the left, immediately preceding the salutation. It should be in two or three lines, the indention being either blocked14 or en échelon14: e.g.,

(blocked)

Messrs. Smith, Robinson & Co.

713 Chestnut Street

Philadelphia, Pa.

or (en échelon)

Messrs. Smith, Robinson & Co.

Philadelphia, Pa.

or (en échelon)

Messrs. Smith, Robinson & Co.

713 Chestnut Street

Philadelphia, Pa.

II. Informal. — 1. The same latitude is allowed here as in the matter of the date. It is customary, however, to omit the address in informal or friendly correspondence.

III. Formal. — 1. The address is always placed at the end in formal letters, on the left, below the place and date. Its arrangement may be blocked15 or en échelon,15 but this should be the same arrangement as that adopted for the place and the address.

2. In making reply to formal invitations, the address of the addressee is omitted.

14 See page 56.

15 See page 56.

THE SALUTATION

I. Business. — 1. The salutation should be so written as to line with the first line of the address, on the left. {117}

2. Ordinarily it should occupy a line by itself, but when the address requires three lines, the salutation may be made a part of the body of the letter, being followed by a colon and a dash: e.g., Gentlemen:―

3. When the salutation is in a line by itself it calls for a comma if the letter is informal, and for a colon if it is formal.

4. The proper form of the salutation is Gentlemen, Dear Sir(s), My dear Sir (if the letter is signed by an individual name), Dear Madam or My dear Madam (to a married or single woman), Ladies.

5. The proper capitalization is here shown.

II. Informal. — 1. The salutation Dear Sir is less formal than My dear Sir, although in England the opposite opinion prevails.

2. The capitalization is the same as in business letters; i.e., the first word and the word which stands in place of the person’s name are capitalized: e.g., My own dear Sister, My dear Aunt Mary, or Dear John, My dear Friend.

3. In an informal letter the comma is usually used after the salutation.

4. Do not use abbreviations in the salutation: e.g., write Dear Doctor Smith, not Dear Dr. Smith.

5. Do not omit the salutatory phrase: Friend James, or Mr. James Smith is too abrupt.

III. Formal. — 1. A letter to the President of the United States or to King George {118} should have the salutation Sir; to the Pope, Your Holiness; to the Vice-President, Mr. Vice-President, Sir; to a duke, My Lord Duke; to a baron, My Lord; to a cardinal, Your Eminence; to an archbishop in England, My Lord Archbishop, in the United States, The Most Reverend ——, Sir; to a bishop in England, My Lord Bishop, in the United States, Most Reverend Sir; to a dean or to an archdeacon, Reverend Sir; to a senator, congressman, mayor, or judge, Sir or Dear Sir; to an ambassador, To the —— Ambassador, Sir.

2. A colon should follow the salutation in formal letters.

THE TEXT OF THE LETTER

I. Business.16 — 1. The idea that curtness and brevity are essential characteristics of a business letter exists now only in the minds of the inexperienced, the ignorant, or the careless. One still finds stock phrases and omitted articles to a surprising extent, — so much so that a well-written business letter carries with it more weight because of the contrast which it offers. The writers of the best business letters today lose no time in getting to the point, but they extend to their correspondent the courtesy of correct diction. Arrangement, punctuation, spelling, and grammar reflect favorably or otherwise upon the reputation of the house. {119}

16 See example 1 on page 126.

2. Avoid such monotonous expressions as the following: (a) Yours, your favor, your esteemed favor; write letter. (b) 12th inst., 12th, recent date; write 12 March. (c) I will say, I would say, I can say; write Allow me to say, or omit it altogether. (d) In reply would say; write In reply I would say, or In reply allow me to say. (e) Same, the same; write it or they. (f) Please find enclosed; write I enclose. (g) Hoping to hear soon, thanking you in advance, awaiting your response, and oblige have all become hackneyed. Omit them unless bearing specifically upon the text of the letter.

3. Do not omit I or We in such expressions as, Beg17 to acknowledge, Have been awaiting your advice.

4. Do not use the first person singular when the letter is signed by the firm name.

5. Do not say the writer in one portion of the letter and I in another.

6. In arrangement, the first line of the text should begin on the line below the salutation, indented about one inch, and each paragraph should be similarly indented.18 Another style, particularly useful when the letter covers several distinct subjects, is to use the reverse indention, with subheads in capitals at the extreme left.19 {120}

17 This should be Beg leave to acknowledge.

18 See example 1 on page 126.

19 See example 2 on page 126.

II. Informal.20 — 1. However informal or friendly, a letter should tell what it has to say in a straightforward, coherent manner. Apologies for delay in writing, or for anything else except illness, absence from town, or other cause which demands explanation, are wasteful of paper, ink, and the time of two persons.

2. A general fault in informal letters is the paragraphing and punctuation. The writer should remember that he is trying to express to another mental ideas which have no opportunity to become crystallized by the sound of the voice. He should take especial pains to assist his correspondent in assimilating the thoughts which he expresses, by not running different topics together, and by separating phrases and sentences with their proper marks.

III. Formal. — 1. The expedient of writing in the third person is adopted in formal social correspondence.21 Notes of this kind should have no heading, address, complimentary close, or signature. The date alone, omitting the year, is used, being placed at the end on the left. No abbreviations other than Mr., Mrs., Messrs., and Dr. should be used. The date should be spelled out in full.

2. Notes written to tradespeople22 conveying {121} orders or instructions are also frequently written in the third person. In this case, however, the address is always given at the end on the left, and the date, using figures, is also employed. There is no signature.

20 See example 3 on page 127.

21 See example 4 on page 127.

22 See example 5 on page 128.

THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE

I. Business. — 1. The accepted forms of complimentary closes of business letters are Yours truly, and Yours very truly. The forms Respectfully yours, Your obedient servant, and Faithfully yours are now regarded as too obsequious.

2. The complimentary close should begin in the middle of a line by itself, below the concluding words of the text.

3. The first word alone should be capitalized.

4. A comma should be placed at end of the line.

5. Do not abbreviate any of the words in the complimentary close. Avoid such contractions as Y’rs for Yours.

6. Expressions used to introduce the complimentary close, such as With kind regards, I am, Believe me, Good-bye, etc., should be treated as part of the concluding line of the text only when closely related to the final sentence; otherwise they occupy a separate line.

II. Informal. — 1. The nature of the complimentary close of informal or friendly {122} letters depends upon the degree of intimacy which exists between the correspondents. The usual forms are, Yours sincerely, or Yours very truly, but they may properly be used as expressions of affection, as Your devoted husband, or Your loving daughter.

III. Formal. — 1. There is no complimentary close to formal notes written in the third person.

2. The complimentary closes to formal letters addressed to persons in high positions are as follows: to the President of the United States, I have the honor to be, Sir, your most obedient servant; to King George, I have the honor to be, Sir, Your Majesty’s most obedient servant. This form is modified as the rank of the person addressed becomes less important. To a congressman, for instance, one would say no more than, I have the honor to be.

THE SIGNATURE

1. The signature should be written on a line by itself, a little to the right of the complimentary close.

2. Women should always sign their full names or indicate in brackets how they should be addressed. Any one of the following forms is proper:

a.(Miss) M. L. Brown
b.(Mrs.) Ellen M. Brown
c.Ellen M. Brown

(Mrs. J. H. Brown)

{123}

3. In letters to all except the family or intimate friends the Christian name and the surname should be signed in full.

THE ENVELOPE

1. The arrangement of the address upon the envelope is largely a matter of taste. It usually occupies three or four lines, written en échelon,23 but some writers prefer the blocked24 formation.

23 See page 56.

24 See page 56.

2. In business letters the word street and the name of the state may be abbreviated, but in formal and informal letters it is better form to spell out in full.

3. Legibility is even more essential in the address than in the letter itself.

4. It is good form to write the street and number or the postoffice box in the lower left-hand corner.

5. The abbreviations No. and # before the figures in the street address should be omitted.

6. In care of should be written out in full.

7. The stamp should always be placed in the upper right-hand corner, as a convenience to the postoffice officials. Care should be taken to affix the stamp neatly, as carelessness in this respect reflects upon the sender.

8. Punctuation may be omitted at the ends of the lines; otherwise use a comma, except at the end of the last line. {124}

9. The title Esq. is more complimentary than Mr., and the former should always be used when addressing men holding a college degree or of social standing. In formal social addresses Mr. (or Dr., etc.) is always used.

10. In addressing envelopes to persons in high positions the following forms should be used: To the President of the United States, The President, Executive Mansion, Washington, D. C.; to King George, His Majesty, the King, London (omit England, as this is considered a provincialism); to the Pope, His Holiness, Pope Pius X., Rome (omit Italy); to a member of the Cabinet, To the Honorable the Secretary of State; to a duke, His Grace, the Duke of ——; to a baron, The Right Honorable, the Lord ——; to a cardinal, To His Eminence, William Cardinal O’Connell; to an archbishop in England, The Most Reverend —— His Grace the Lord Archbishop of ——; to a bishop in England, The Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of ——, in the United States, The Right Reverend (Christian and surname), adding honorary titles; to a dean in England, The Very Reverend the Dean of ——; to an archdeacon in England, The Venerable the Archdeacon (surname); to a senator, congressman, mayor, or judge, Honorable (Christian and surname); to a governor, His Excellency, the Governor of ——; to an ambassador, His Excellency the British Ambassador. {125}

POSTAL CARDS

1. Postal cards have become much more common during the past few years, the pictorial variety being particularly popular. The prejudice against their use has largely disappeared.

2. Postal cards do not require salutation or complimentary close.

IN GENERAL

1. Use black ink and never use a pencil, even in friendly letters, except in an emergency.

2. Do not practise economy of paper by writing in the margin.

3. Fold the letter so that when taken from the envelope it will open right-side up.

4. Never omit the date from any note or letter, however unimportant.

5. In brief letters the first and fourth or first and third pages may be written upon, leaving the others blank.

6. Avoid postscripts except in an emergency.

7. Unruled paper should be used for all correspondence.

8. Typewritten letters are permissible only in business correspondence, and even in these the signature should be written by hand.

9. Any evidence of haste is a discourtesy. Never sign a letter, Yours in haste.

10. Underscoring is permissible only in informal letters and should be used sparingly.

{126}

EXAMPLES OF CORRECT LETTER WRITING

1. BUSINESS LETTER I

NORWOOD, MASS.,

12 March, 1912

MESSRS. FREDERICK A. STOKES CO.

443 Fourth Ave.

New York, N.Y.

GENTLEMEN:

Your letter of 11 March is at hand, and we acknowledge receipt of the MS. of “The Writer’s Desk Book,” together with your detailed instructions. The MS. shall be put into type without delay, and galley proofs shall be sent to the author in accord with your advice. We expect to complete the typesetting within two weeks’ time.

Thanking you for the order, we are

Yours very truly,

THE PLIMPTON PRESS

2. BUSINESS LETTER II (reverse indention)

443 FOURTH AVE., NEW YORK, N. Y.

25 March, 1912

THE PLIMPTON PRESS

Norwood, Mass.

GENTLEMEN:

We beg leave to take up with you the various details of manufacture relating to the various books in your hands, as follows:

WRITER’S DESK BOOK: In addition to the proofs which you are now sending to the author, please send two additional sets of galley and page proof to us.

MEISSONIER: The sample page which you submit is accepted. We shall require two sets of page-proof only.

MAXIMS OF METHUSELAH: Please print an edition of 5000 copies, using paper which you have in stock for us.

Yours very truly,

FREDERICK A. STOKES CO.

{127}

3. INFORMAL OR FRIENDLY LETTER

NICE,

August 28, 1857

MY DEAR ENTHUSIAST,

Again I request your kind offices by the enclosed note, in giving it or forwarding it to my brother. Charles and I have been much gratified in reading aloud — he reading to me while I work — the life of Shakespeare by Thomas Campbell. It is put together in a most pleasant spirit, which all the biographies are not. But a poet is sure to write well on a poet. Everything that Coleridge, for instance, says of our Idol is in charming taste; and also Barry Cornwall’s Memoir and Essay on Shakespeare and his Writings has the same delightful poetic charm. After reading the heap of inappreciative discussions on the subject, it is truly refreshing to go through the dissertations of such authors as these upon our poet of poets. They can best feel his merits, and can therefore most veneratingly and modestly treat the theme of his genius and greatness.

With united kindest regards from Charles and myself to you and Mrs. Balmanno, believe me to be

Gratefully,

MARY COWDEN CLARKE

ROBERT BALMANNO, ESQ.

NEW YORK, N. Y.

4. FORMAL SOCIAL NOTES

Mr. and Mrs. Charles Winslow request the pleasure of Mr. James Gorham’s company at dinner on Thursday evening, January the twelfth, at half after seven o’clock.

487 Beacon Street

January the fourth25

{128}

Mr. James Gorham regrets that an engagement previously made prevents26 him from accepting the kind invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Winslow for dinner on Thursday evening, January the twelfth.

289 Commonwealth Avenue

January the fifth

25 While this form is commonly used, it is not grammatically correct. One may say George the Fourth, because three Georges have preceded him. Strictly speaking, one should write The fourth of January.

26 See under Tense on page 112.

5. FORMAL NOTE TO TRADESMAN

Mrs. Gorham desires Messrs. Smith & Robinson to send for her examination the electric ironing apparatus advertised in this morning’s “Herald.”

312Sigourney Street

12 January, 1912

(A note of this kind should always have the address.)

{129}

POSTAL REGULATIONS

CLASSES OF MAIL

DOMESTIC matter is divided into four classes, governed as follows:

First Class embraces letters, postal cards, post cards, all matter wholly or partly in writing or sealed against inspection. Rate, 2 cents for each ounce and fraction. Limit of weight, 4 pounds.

Second Class applies to newspapers and periodicals in their entirety bearing the printed statement “Entered at the post-office as second-class matter,” etc., when they are mailed by the public. Parts of publications are third-class matter. Additions may be made on the wrapper or the matter itself; there may be written or printed the name and address of the sender, preceded by the word “from”; the name and address of the person to whom sent; the words “sample copy” or “marked copy,” or both, as the case may be. On the matter itself the sender may place all that is permitted on the wrapper; correct typographical errors in the text; designate by marks, not by words, {130} a word or passage in the text to which it is desired to call attention. Other writing will subject the package to the first-class rate.

Rate 1 cent for each 4 ounces or fraction. Full prepayment required. No limit of weight.

Third Class includes unsealed books, newspapers and periodicals not admitted to the second class, circulars, miscellaneous printed matter on paper not having the nature of personal correspondence, and proof sheets, corrected proof sheets, and manuscript copy accompanying the same, engravings, lithographs, seeds, scions, cuttings, bulbs, roots, and plants. Also facsimile copies made by a mechanical process such as the printing press, electric pen, mimeograph, hektograph, copygraph, etc., provided that they are mailed at the post-office window in the minimum number of twenty identical copies separately addressed. If mailed elsewhere or in less number, first-class postage is required.

A circular may have in writing therein the name of the addressee or sender or date.

Corrections in proof sheets include the alteration of the text and insertion of new matter, as well as the correction of typographical and other errors. They include also marginal instructions to the printer necessary to the correction of the matter or its proper appearance in print. Part of an article may be entirely rewritten if that be necessary for {131} correction. Corrections must be upon the margin of or attached to the proof sheets. Manuscript of one article cannot be inclosed with proof or corrected proof sheets of another except at the first-class rate. Written designation of contents, such as “book,” “printed matter,” “photo,” is permissible upon the wrapper of mail matter of the third class.

A single card bearing the written name and address of the sender, or an envelope bearing a written or printed name and address of the sender, may be inclosed with a circular, catalogue, or other third-class matter without affecting the classification thereof. Public library books, otherwise mailable at the third-class rate, may bear any printed or written mark which may reasonably be construed as a necessary inscription for the purpose of a permanent library record.

Rate 1 cent each 2 ounces or fraction. Limit of weight, 4 pounds, except single books. Postage must be fully prepaid and great care exercised not to add any written words or figures except such as are permissible.

Parcel Post includes all (unsealed) matter not embraced in the three classes already enumerated, except seeds, cuttings, bulbs, roots, scions, and plants, on which the rate is one-half cent per ounce. Important changes are certain to be made from time to time during the experimental period, so readers are urged to secure the {132} latest information from their own post-office. The basic regulations at present are as follows:

SPECIAL STAMPS REQUIRED. Denominations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50 and 75c. $1.

WEIGHT LIMIT: Eleven (11) pounds.

SIZE LIMIT: 72 inches, length and girth combined.

PARCELS MAY BE INSURED up to $50.00 by paying a fee of 10 cents.

RATES PER POUND: Depend on distance parcel is to be carried. See Table of Rates on page 162.

MARKING: Parcels must bear name and address of sender, preceded by word “From.”

MAILING: Parcels exceeding 4 ounces in weight must be mailed at post-office.

WRAPPING OF MAIL MATTER

All mail matter should be so wrapped as safely to bear transmission without breaking, or injuring mail bags or the contents of mail bags or the persons of those handling them. Second, third, and fourth-class matter must be so wrapped or enveloped that the contents may be examined easily by postal officials. When not so wrapped, or when bearing or containing writing not authorized by law, the matter will be treated as of the first class.

FORWARDING MAIL MATTER

Matter of the first class may be forwarded until it reaches the addressee. All other classes require prepayment of the original postage before forwarding.

WHAT CANNOT BE MAILED

All transient second-class matter and all matter of the third or fourth class not wholly {133} prepaid, and letters and other first-class matter not prepaid are full rate — 2 cents.

All matter weighing over 4 pounds, except second-class matter, single books, and documents printed and circulated by authority of Congress.

Postal, post, or other cards mailed without wrappers and all matter bearing upon the outside cover or wrapper any delineations, epithets, terms, or language of an indecent, lewd, lascivious, obscene, libelous, scurrilous, defamatory or threatening character, or calculated by the terms of manner or style of display, and obviously intended to reflect injuriously upon the character or conduct of another.

Post cards bearing particles of glass, metal, mica, sand, tinsel, etc., are unmailable.

All matter concerning any lottery, so-called gift concert, or other enterprise of chance, or concerning schemes devised for the purpose of obtaining money or property under false pretenses.

CONCEALED MATTER

For knowingly concealing or inclosing any matter of a higher class in that of a lower class, and depositing or causing the same to be deposited for conveyance by mail at a less rate than would be charged for both such higher and lower class, the offender will be liable for every such offense to a fine of $10. {134}

DOMESTIC RATES

The domestic rates apply to the United States, Porto Rico, Guam, Philippine Islands, Shanghai (China), Tutuila, Cuba, Canada,27 Mexico,27 Hawaii, Republic of Panama and the Panama Canal Zone.

27 See exceptions which follow.

FOREIGN RATES

Mail matter addressed to countries in the Universal Postal Union is subject to the following rates: Letters and sealed packages, 5 cents for one ounce or fraction thereof, and 3 cents for each additional ounce or fraction thereof, if prepaid, and double that rate if not prepaid, except Great Britain, and Germany (if sent by steamers sailing for Germany direct), which is 2 cents per ounce.

Postal and private mail cards, 2 cents each.

Printed matter of every kind, commercial papers, samples of merchandise, 1 cent each 2 ounces or fraction thereof, but at least 5 cents must be paid on each packet of commercial papers and 2 cents on each packet of samples of merchandise.

Mail schedules showing the name of steamer, hour of closing of the mail at the General Post-Office, etc., may be found in the corridors of the General Post-Office or any of its stations. {135}

Exceptions for Cuba, Mexico, Canada, and Republic of Panama

Matter mailed in United States addressed to MEXICO is subject to the same postage rates and conditions as that addressed in the United States, except that articles of miscellaneous merchandise (fourth-class matter) in unsealed packages not sent as bona fide trade samples are required to be sent by “Parcels Post,” and that the following articles are absolutely excluded from the mails:

All sealed packages other than letters in the usual form; all packages (including packages of second-class matter which weigh more than 4 pounds 6 ounces), except such as are sent by parcels post; publications which violate any copyright law of Mexico.

Samples of merchandise: Packages not in excess of 4 ounces, 2 cents. Packages in excess of 4 ounces, for each 2 ounces or fraction thereof, 1 cent. Limit of weight, 12 ounces.

Mail matter in United States addressed to CANADA and CUBA is subject to same postage rates and conditions as addressed for delivery in United States, except that the following articles are absolutely excluded from the mails:

All packages closed against inspection and not in usual form of a letter; all packages, except single volumes of printed books, {136} which weigh more than 4 pounds 6 ounces; publications which violate any copyright law of Canada, Cuba, or Republic of Panama.

Unsealed packages of “commercial papers” are admitted to the mails dispatched from this country to Mexico and Canada at the same rate and subject to the same conditions as to weight and dimensions as apply to commercial papers in mails dispatched to other countries of Universal Postal Union.

FOREIGN PARCELS POST

Parcels Post conventions are in effect with the following countries, the rate of postage being 12 cents a pound or fraction: Australia,28 Austria,28 Bahamas, Barbadoes,28 Belgium,28 Bermuda, Bolivia, British Guiana, British Honduras, Chili, certain places in China; Costa Rica, Denmark.28 Dutch Guiana — Parcels cannot be registered. Ecuador — Parcels must not exceed $50 in value. France — Parcels cannot be registered and must not weigh over 4 pounds 6 ounces or exceed $50 in value. Germany. Great Britain and Ireland — Parcels cannot be registered. Guatemala, Honduras, Hongkong,28 Hungary,28 Jamaica, Japan.28 Mexico — Limit of size, 2 feet in length, 4 feet in girth. Netherlands28 — Parcels cannot be registered. Newfoundland, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway,28 Peru, Salvador, Sweden,28 Trinidad. {137} Uruguay — Parcels cannot be registered. Venezuela, Windward Islands.

28 Parcels not to exceed $80 in value.

Parcels Post packages may be mailed only at the main post-office or at branch carrier stations after each package has been examined and is attached to a parcels post declaration.

MONEY ORDER FEES

Fees for money orders payable in the United States (which includes Hawaii and Porto Rico) and its possessions comprising the Canal Zone (Isthmus of Panama), Guam, the Philippines, and Tutuila, Samoa; also for orders payable in Bahamas, Bermuda, British Guiana, British Honduras, Canada, Cuba, Newfoundland, at the United States postal agency at Shanghai (China), and in certain islands in the West Indies:

Not exceeding $2.50 | 3c
Over $2.50 to $5 | 5c
Over $5 to $10 | 8c
Over $10 to $20 | 10c
Over $20 to $30 | 12c
Over $30 to $40 | 15c
Over $40 to $50 | 18c
Over $50 to $60 | 20c
Over $60 to $75 | 25c
Over $75 to $100 | 30c

Fees for International Money Orders

When payable in Apia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Chili, Costa Rica, Denmark, Egypt, Germany, Hongkong, Japan, Liberia, Luxemburg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Orange River Colony, Peru, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and Transvaal: {138}

Not exceeding $10 | 8c
Over $10 to $20 | 10c
Over $20 to $30 | 15c
Over $30 to $40 | 20c
Over $40 to $50 | 25c
Over $50 to $60 | 30c
Over $60 to $70 | 35c
Over $70 to $80 | 40c
Over $80 to $90 | 45c
Over $90 to $100 | 50c

When payable in Cape Colony, France, Great Britain, Greece, Republic of Honduras, Italy, New South Wales, Queensland, Russia, Salvador, South Australia, Tasmania, and Victoria:

Not exceeding $10 | 10c
Over $10 to $20 | 20c
Over $20 to $30 | 30c
Over $30 to $40 | 40c
Over $40 to $50 | 50c
Over $50 to $60 | 60c
Over $60 to $70 | 70c
Over $70 to $80 | 80c
Over $80 to $90 | 90c
Over $90 to $100 | $1

REGISTERED MAIL

Domestic

Any article of the first, second, third, or fourth class mail matter may be registered at any post-office in the United States. The fee on registered matter, domestic or foreign, is 10 cents for each letter or parcel, to be affixed in stamps, in addition to the postage. Full prepayment of postage and fee is required. Two or more letters or parcels addressed to, or intended for, the same person cannot be tied or otherwise fastened together and registered as one.

A return receipt signed by the recipient and showing delivery is returned to the sender of each domestic registered letter or parcel if requested at the time of mailing. {139}

If it is desired that registered matter be delivered to the addressee only, it should be endorsed “To be delivered to the addressee only.”

The postal authorities give an indemnity for domestic first-class registered mail lost in transit up to $50.

Foreign

1. Any article of mail matter, except parcels post packages for France, The Netherlands, Uruguay, Great Britain, Barbadoes, Dutch Guiana, may be registered, provided that when presented for registration the postage thereon be fully prepaid by postage stamps affixed, also the registration fee, which is uniformly 10 cents.

2. Name and address of sender in full must be indorsed on or written across the end of the letter or article before it can be registered.

3. The senders of registered articles may obtain assurance of their receipt by persons addressed by indorsing them with the words, “Return receipt requested.”

SPECIAL DELIVERY SYSTEM

A special 10 cent stamp, when attached to a letter or package (in addition to the lawful postage), will entitle such to immediate delivery at destination within the carrier limit of a free delivery office between the hours of 7 A.M. and 11 P.M., and from 7 A.M. to {140} 7 P.M. at all other offices, or until after the arrival of the last mail at night, provided that be not later than 9 P.M. Special delivery mail must be delivered on Sunday, as well as on other days, if post-office is open on Sundays.

If special delivery matter fails of delivery because there is no person at the place of address to receive it, the matter is returned to the post-office and delivered in the ordinary mail.

Ten cents worth of ordinary stamps with “special delivery” written on envelope serves the same purpose. Short-paid second, third, and fourth class matter, to which is attached a special delivery stamp, cannot be forwarded.

POSTAL DISTANCES AND TIME FROM NEW YORK CITY

SHORTEST ROUTES AND TIME IN TRANSIT BY FASTEST TRAINS Subject to alterations occasioned by changes in time tables and connections

Cities in U. S. | Mls. | Hrs.
Albany, N. Y. | 142 | 3 1⁄2
Atlanta, Ga. | 882 | 24 1⁄4
Baltimore, Md. | 138 | 6
Bismarck, N. Dak. | 1738 | 60 1⁄2
Boise, Idaho | 2736 | 92 1⁄2
Boston, Mass. | 217 | 6
Buffalo, N. Y. | 410 | 9 1⁄2
Cape May, N. J. | 172 | 5
Carson City, Nev. | 3036 | 109 1⁄4
Charleston, S. C. | 804 | 21 1⁄4
Chattanooga, Ten. | 853 | 32
Cheyenne, Wyo. | 1899 | 54
Chicago, Ill. | 900 | 23
Cincinnati, O. | 744 | 23
Cleveland, O. | 568 | 19 1⁄2
Columbus, O. | 624 | 20
Concord, N. H. | 292 | 9 1⁄2
Deadwood, S. Dak. | 1957 | 65 1⁄2
Denver, Col. | 1930 | 61 1⁄2
Des Moines, Ia. | 1257 | 37 1⁄2
Detroit, Mich. | 743 | 21
Galveston, Tex. | 1789 | 56 1⁄2
Harrisburg, Pa. | 182 | 6
Hartford, Ct. | 112 | 4
Helena, Mont. | 2423 | 89
Hot Springs, Ark. | 1367 | 55
Indianapolis, Ind. | 808 | 23
Jacksonville, Fla. | 1077 | 30
Kansas City, Mo. | 1302 | 38 1⁄4
Louisville, Ky. | 854 | 30
Memphis, Tenn. | 1163 | 40
Milwaukee, Wis. | 985 | 29 1⁄4
Montgomery, Ala. | 1057 | 26
Montpelier, Vt. | 327 | 10 1⁄4
New Orleans, La. | 1344 | 32
Omaha, Neb. | 1383 | 43
Philadelphia, Pa. | 90 | 3
Pittsburgh, Pa. | 431 | 13
Portland, Me. | 325 | 12
Portland, Ore. | 3181 | 141 1⁄2
Prescott, Ariz. | 2724 | 94
Providence, R. I. | 189 | 5
Richmond, Va. | 344 | 11 1⁄4
St. Louis, Mo. | 1048 | 29
St. Paul, Minn. | 1300 | 37
Salt Lake City, U. | 2452 | 71 1⁄2
San Francisco, Cal. | 3250 | 105
Santa Fe, N. Mex. | 2173 | 82
Savannah, Ga. | 905 | 26 1⁄4
Tacoma, Wash. | 3209 | 102
Topeka, Kan. | 1370 | 48
Trenton, N. J. | 57 | 2
Vicksburgh, Miss. | 1288 | 50
Vinita, Ind. Ter. | 1412 | 42
Washington, D. C. | 228 | 6
Wheeling, W. Va. | 496 | 14 1⁄4
Wilmington, Del. | 117 | 5
Wilmington, N. C. | 593 | 20

FOREIGN CITIES FROM NEW YORK CITY

By Postal Route to | Mls. | D’s
Adelaide, v. Frisco | 12845 | 34
Alexandria, v. Lon. | 6150 | 13
Amsterdam, v. Lon. | 3985 | 9
Antwerp, v. London | 4000 | 9
Athens, v. Lon. | 5655 | 12
Bahia, Brazil | 5870 | 21
Bangkok, S. v. Frisco | 12990 | 43
Batavia, J. v. Lon. | 12800 | 34
Berlin | 4385 | 9
Bombay, v. London | 9765 | 24
Bremen | 4235 | 8
Buenos Ayres | 8045 | 29
Calcutta, v. London | 11120 | 26
Cape Town, v. Lon. | 11245 | 27
Const’ople, v. Lon. | 5810 | 11
Florence, v. London | 4800 | 10
Glasgow | 3370 | 10
Greytown, v. N. O. | 2815 | 7
Halifax, N. S. | 645 | 2
Hamburg, direct | 4820 | 9
Havana | 1366 | 3
Hongkong, v. Fris. | 10590 | 25
Honolulu, v. Frisco | 5645 | 13
Liverpool | 3540 | 8
London | 3740 | 8
Madrid, v. London | 4925 | 9
Melbourne, v. Fris. | 12265 | 26
Mexico City (R.R.) | 3750 | 5
Panama | 2355 | 6
Paris | 4020 | 8
Rio de Janeiro | 6204 | 23
Rome, v. London | 5030 | 9
Rotterdam, v. Lon. | 3935 | 9
St. Ptrsburg, v. Lon. | 5370 | 10
Shanghai, v. Fris. | 9920 | 25
Stockholm, v. Lon. | 4975 | 10
Sydney, v. Frisco | 11570 | 21
Valparaiso, v. Pan. | 4808 | 21
Vienna | 4740 | 10
Yokohama, v. Fris. | 7348 | 20

{142}

APPENDIX

STANDARD TIME

BY Standard Time is meant that the hour of each 15° of longitude becomes the local mean time for the zone or belt extending 7 1⁄2° on each side of the central meridian; though in practise the zone has to be adapted to local circumstances, and so cannot conform to the exact line or meridian, but is arranged to suit boundaries of States or Provinces as may be most convenient. By way of illustration, it may be noted that in the Province of Ontario, Canada, by Act of the Legislature, the hour of 75° W. is Standard Time for the Province as far as 87° W., and that the S.W. point, 83° W., extends westerly beyond the eastern part of the State of Michigan, where the time of 90° W. is used; so at Windsor, Ontario, it is noon while in Michigan — more to the east — it is 11 A.M. The Standard Time as used in the chief cities of Canada and the United States may be noted: at Quebec, Montreal, and Toronto, at Boston, New York, and Washington, the time of 75° W., five hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; at Winnipeg in Manitoba, and at Detroit, Chicago, and New Orleans, the time of 90°, {143} six hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; at Regina and Denver it is the time of 105°, seven hours earlier than Greenwich; and in British Columbia and at San Francisco the time of 120° W., eight hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; and when 180° is reached another day begins in Eastern Siberia, at the Fiji Islands, and a little to the east of New Zealand.

The same rule applies to places east of Greenwich, where, of course, noon is earlier than at Greenwich according to the longitude. Spain adopted Standard — that is, Greenwich — Time early in the century. When noon at Greenwich it is 2 P.M. in Egypt and South Africa; it is 5:30 P.M. in India, 82 1⁄2° E.; in Japan and Corea, 135° E., it is 9 P.M.; and in Eastern Australia, 150° E., it is 10 P.M.

The question is often asked, “Where does a day begin?” — that is, any special day, New Year’s Day or Easter Day — and the answer is that for all peoples, nations, and languages, using maps with longitude East and West from Greenwich, each day begins at the meridian of 180°, slightly east of New Zealand in the South, and intersecting Eastern Siberia in the North, and so the last day of the nineteenth century and the first day of the twentieth were on the Earth together, not running concurrently or side by side, north and south of the Equator, as has been {144} supposed, erroneously, but the latter following the former from 180° westerly to Greenwich, and on again to 180°, where it gave place to January 2.

Twelve O’clock Noon Greenwich Mean Time AS COMPARED WITH THE CLOCK IN THE FOLLOWING PLACES

| H. M.
Adelaide | 9 14 P.M.
Auckland (N.Z.) | 11 39 P.M.
Berlin | 0 54 P.M.
Berne | 0 30 P.M.
Bombay | 4 51 P.M.
Boston, U.S. | 7 16 A.M.
Brisbane, Qnsland | 10 12 P.M.
Brussels | 0 17 P.M.
Calcutta | 5 53 P.M.
Cape of Good Hope | 1 14 P.M.
Chicago | 6 10 A.M.
Constantinople | 1 56 P.M.
Dublin | 11 35 A.M.
Edinburgh | 11 47 A.M.
Florence | 0 45 P.M.
Glasgow | 11 43 A.M.
Hobart, Tasmania | 9 49 P.M.
Jerusalem | 2 21 P.M.
Lisbon | 11 23 A.M.
Madras | 5 21 P.M.
Madrid | 11 45 A.M.
Malta | 0 58 P.M.
Melbourne, Aus. | 9 40 P.M.
Moscow | 2 30 P.M.
Newfndland, S. Jns. | 8 29 A.M.
New York | 7  4 A.M.
Paris | 0  9 P.M.
Pekin | 7 46 P.M.
Penzance | 11 37 A.M.
Perth, W. Aus. | 7 43 P.M.
Philadelphia | 6 59 A.M.
Port Moresby | 10  4 P.M.
Prague | 0 58 P.M.
Quebec | 7 15 A.M.
Rome | 0 50 P.M.
Rotterdam | 0 18 P.M.
San Francisco, Port | 3 52 A.M.
St. Petersburg | 2  1 P.M.
Stockholm | 1 12 P.M.
Suez | 2 10 P.M.
Sydney | 10  5 P.M.
Toronto | 6 42 A.M.
Vancouver | 3 38 A.M.
Vienna | 1  5 P.M.

{145}

FOREIGN COINS

WITH THEIR VALUE IN UNITED STATES MONEY AS PROCLAIMED BY THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY 1 OCTOBER, 1910

Country | Standard | Monetary Unit | Val. in terms of U.S. gold dollar | Coins
Argentine Republic | Gold | Peso | $0.965 | Gold — argentine ($4.824) and 1⁄2 argentine. Silver — peso and divisions
Austria-Hungary | Gold | Crown | .203 | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns. Silver — 1 and 5 crowns
Belgium | Gold | Franc | .193 | Gold — 10 and 20 francs. Silver — 5 francs
Bolivia | Silver | Boliviano | .389 | Silver boliviano and divisions
Brazil | Gold | Milreis | .546 | Gold — 5, 10, 20 milreis. Silver — 1⁄2, 1, 2 milreis
British Honduras | Gold | Dollar | 1.000
Canada (except Nfd.) | Gold | Dollar | 1.000
Cent. Amer. States —
| Costa Rica | Gold | Colon | .465 | Gold — 2, 5, 10, and 20 colons ($9.307). Silver — 5, 10, 25, and 50 centimos
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, & Salvador | Silver | Peso | .391 | Silver — peso and divisions
Chili | Gold | Peso | .365 | Gold — escudo ($1.825), doubloon ($3.650), and condor ($7.300). Silver — peso and divisions
China | Silver | [29]Tael:
| Canton | .612
Haikwan | .652
Hongkong | .421

Dol-
lar

British

$0.421

Mexican | .424
Colombia | Gold | Dollar | 1.000 | Gold — condor ($9.647); d’ble-condor. Silver — peso
Denmark | Gold | Crown | .268 | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns
Ecuador | Gold | Sucre | .487 | Gold — 10 sucres ($4.8665). Silver — sucre and div.
Egypt | Gold | Pound (100 piasters) | 4.943 | Gold — pound (100 piasters), 5, 10, 20, 50 piasters Silver — 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 piasters
Finland | Gold | Mark | .193 | Gold — 20 marks ($3.859), 10 marks ($1.93)
France | Gold | Franc | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 francs. Silver — 5 francs
German Empire | Gold | Mark | .238 | Gold — 5, 10, and 20 marks
Great Britain | Gold | Pound Sterling | 4.866 1⁄2 | Gold — sovereign (pound sterling), 1⁄2 sovereign
Greece | Gold | Drachma | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 drachmas. Sil. — 5 drachmas
Haiti | Gold | Gourde | .965 | Gold — 1, 2, 5, 10 gourdes. Silver — gourde and div.
India (British) | Gold | Pound Sterling[30] | 4.866 1⁄2 | Gold — sovereign (pound sterling). Silver — rupee and divisions
Italy | Gold | Lira | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 lire. Silver — 5 lire
Japan | Gold | Yen | .498 | Gold — 5, 10, and 20 yen. Silver — 10, 20, and 50 yen
Liberia | Gold | Dollar | 1.000
Mexico | Gold | Peso[31] | .498 | Gold — 5, 10 pesos. Silver — dollar (or peso) and div.

Nether-
lands

Gold

Florin

.402

Gold — 10 florins. Silver — 2 1⁄2. 1 florin and divisions

Newfound-
land

Gold

Dollar

1.014

Gold — 2 dollars ($2.028)

Norway | Gold | Crown | .268 | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns
Panama | Gold | Balboa | 1.000 | Gold — 1, 2 1⁄2, 5, 10, 20 balboas. Silver — peso and div.
Persia | Silver | Kran | .072 | Gold — 1⁄2, 1 and 2 tomans ($3.409). Silver — 1⁄4, 1⁄2, 1, 2, and 5 krans
Peru | Gold | Libra | 4.866 1⁄2 | Gold — 1⁄2 and 1 libra. Silver — sol and divisions
Philippine Islands | Gold | Peso | .500 | Silver peso — 10, 20 and 50 centavos
Portugal | Gold | Milreis | 1.080 | Gold — 1, 2, 5 and 10 milreis
Russia | Gold | Ruble | .515 | Gold — 5, 7 1⁄2, 10, and 15 rubles. Silver — 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, and 100 copeks
Spain | Gold | Peseta | .193 | Gold — 25 pesetas. Silver — 5 pesetas
Straits Settlements | Gold | Pound Sterling[32] | 4.866 1⁄2 | Gold — sovereign (pound sterling). Sil. — dol. and div.
Sweden | Gold | Crown | .268 | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns
Switzerland | Gold | Franc | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 francs. Silver — 5 francs
Turkey | Gold | Piaster | .044 | Gold — 25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 piasters
Uruguay | Gold | Peso | 1.034 | Gold — peso. Silver — peso and divisions
Venezuela | Gold | Bolivar | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 bolivars. Silver — 5 bolivars

29 Amoy, .641; Cheefoo, .613; Chin Kiang, .626; Fuchau, .593; Hankau, .599; Kiaochu, .621; Nanking, .634; Newchang, .601; Ningpo, .616; Peking, .625; Shanghai, .585; Swatow, .592; Takau, .645; Tientsin, .621.

30 The sovereign is the standard coin of India, but the rupee ($0.3244 1⁄2) is the current coin, valued at 15 to the sovereign.

31 Seventy-five centigrams fine gold.

32 The current coin of the Straits Settlements is the silver dollar issue on government account and which has been given a tentative value of $0.567758 1⁄3.

NOTE. — The coins of silver-standard countries are valued by their pure silver contents at the average market price of silver for the three months preceding the date of this table. (Courtesy The World Almanac.)

{148}

COMPARATIVE THERMOMETERS

Réaumur

Centi-
grade

Fahren-
heit

80 | 100 | 212 | Water boils at sea-level
76 | 95 | 203
72 | 90 | 194
68 | 85 | 185
63.1 | 78.9 | 174 | Alcohol boils
60 | 75 | 167
56 | 70 | 158
52 | 65 | 149 | White of egg coagulates
48 | 60 | 140
44 | 55 | 131
42.2 | 52.8 | 127
40 | 50 | 122
36 | 45 | 113 | Tallow melts
33.8 | 42.2 | 108
32 | 40 | 104
29.3 | 36.7 | 98 | Blood heat
28 | 35 | 95
25.8 | 32.2 | 90
24 | 30 | 86
21.3 | 26.7 | 80
20 | 25 | 77
16 | 20 | 68 | Temperate
12.4 | 15.3 | 60
10.2 | 12.8 | 55
8 | 10 | 50
5.8 | 7.2 | 45
4 | 5 | 41
1.3 | 1.7 | 35
0 | 0 | 32 | Water freezes
0.9 | - 1.1 | 30
4 | - 9 | 23
5.3 | - 6.7 | 20
8 | -10 | 14
9.8 | -12.2 | 10
12 | -15 | 5
14.2 | -17.8 | 0 | Zero Fahr.
16 | -20 | - 4
20 | -25 | -13
24 | -30 | -22
28 | -35 | -31
32 | -40 | -40 | Mercury freezes

To change from centigrade to Fahrenheit multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. To change from Réaumur to Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide by 4, and add 32.

(Courtesy The World Almanac)

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

THE METRIC SYSTEM

- Multiples which are used equally with all the principal units

- M (myria = 10000)
- K (kilo = 1000)
- H (hekto = 100)
- D (deka = 10)

(NOTE. These are Greek numerals)

- Divisions which are used equally with all the principle units

- d (deci = .1)
- c (centi = .01)
- m (milli = .001)

(NOTE. These are Latin numerals)

Kinds of Quantities Measured | Principal Units | Definitions
Length | m (meter)
Area | sq. m (square meter)
a (Ar) | 1 sq. Dm.
Volume | cu m (cubic meter)
s (ster) | 1 cu. m.
l (liter) | 1 cu. d m
Weight | g (gram) | Weight of 1 cu. cm. of pure water at 4° centigrade

NOTE. 1000 kg. is called t. (a metric ton.)

{150}

LINEAR MEASURE

- 12 in. = 1 foot
- 3 ft. = 1 yd.
- 5 1⁄2 yds. = 1 rod
- 320 rds. = 1 mile
- 5280 ft. = 1 mile
- 3 miles = 1 league

The hand (4 in.) is used to measure the height of horses. The nautical mile is 6086.44 ft. 1 knot is 1.1528 statute miles. 1 degree is 67.168 statute miles.

SQUARE MEASURE

- 144 sq. in. = 1 sq. ft.
- 9 sq. ft. = 1 sq. yd.
- 30 1⁄4 sq. yds. = 1 sq. rod
- 160 sq. rods = 1 acre
- 640 acres = 1 sq. mile

The side of a square having an area of an acre is approximately 208 3⁄4 feet.

DRY MEASURE

- 2 pints = 1 quart
- 8 quarts = 1 peck
- 4 pecks = 1 bushel

LIQUID MEASURE

- 4 gills = 1 pt.

- 2 pts. = 1 qt.

- 4 qts. = 1 gall.

- 31 1⁄2 gall. = 1 barrel

- 2 barrels = 1 hogshead

APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT

- 20 grains = 1 scruple
- 3 scruples = 1 dram
- 8 drams = 1 ounce
- 12 ounces = 1 pound

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT

- 16 drams = 1 ounce
- 16 ounces = 1 pound
- 100 pounds = 1 hundredweight
- 20 hundredweights = 1 ton

- Long ton = 2240 pounds, used mostly in Great Britain.

TROY WEIGHT

- 24 grains = 1 pennyweight
- 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce
- 12 ounces = 1 pound

- 1 carat in diamond, measure = 3.2 Troy grains.

{151}

PAPER MEASURE

- 24 sheets = 1 quire
- 20 quires = 1 ream
- 2 reams = 1 bundle
- 5 bundles = 1 bale

TIME MEASURE

- 60 seconds = 1 minute
- 60 minutes = 1 hour
- 24 hours = 1 day
- 7 days = 1 week

- 28, 29, 30, or 31 days = 1 calendar month
(30 days = 1 month in computing interest)

- 365 days = 1 year

- 366 days = 1 leap year

CIRCULAR MEASURE

- 60 seconds = 1 minute
- 60 minutes = 1 degree
- 30 degrees = 1 sign
- 90 degrees = 1 quadrant

- 4 quadrants = 12 signs, or 360 degrees = 1 circle

CLOTH MEASURE

- 2 1⁄4 inches = 1 nail
- 4 nails = 1 quarter
- 4 quarters = 1 yard

MARINERS’ MEASURE

- 6 feet = 1 fathom
- 120 fathoms = 1 cab. le’th.
- 7 1⁄2 cable lengths = 1 mile
- 5280 feet = 1 stat. mile
- 6085 feet = 1 naut. mile

MISCELLANEOUS

- 3 inches = 1 palm
- 4 inches = 1 hand
- 6 inches = 1 span
- 18 inches = 1 cubit
- 21.8 in. = 1 Bible cubit
- 2 1⁄2 ft. = 1 military pace

SURVEYORS’ MEASURE

- 7.92 inches = 1 link

- 25 links = 1 rod

- 4 rods = 1 chain

- 10 square chains or 160 square rods = 1 acre

- 640 acres = 1 sq. mile

- 36 sq. miles (6 miles sq.) = 1 township

{152}

CUBIC MEASURE

- 1728 cubic in. = 1 cub. ft.

- 27 cubic ft. = 1 cubic yd.

- 128 c. ft. = 1 cord (wood)

- 40 cub. ft. = 1 ton (shpg.)

- 2150.42 cubic inches = 1 standard bushel

- 268.8 cubic inches = 1 standard gallon

- 1 cubic foot = about four-fifths of a bushel

METRIC EQUIVALENTS

Linear Measure

1 centimeter = 0.3937 in.

1 in. = 2.54 centimeters

1 decimeter = 3.937 in. = 0.328 feet

1 ft. = 3.048 decimeters

1 meter = 39.37 in. = 1.0936 yards

1 yard = 0.9144 meter

1 dekameter = 1.9884 rods

1 rod= 0.5029 dekameter

1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile

1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers

Square Measure

1 sq. centimeter = 0.1550 sq. in.

1 sq. inch = 6452 square centimeters

1 sq. decimeter = 0.1076 sq. ft.

1 sq. foot = 9.2903 square decimeters

1 sq. meter = 1.196 sq. yd.

1 sq. yd. = 0.8361 sq. m’r.

1 are = 3.954 sq. rd.

1 sq. rd. = 0.2529 are

1 hektar = 2.47 acres

1 acre= 0.4047 hektar

1 sq. kilometer = 0.386 sq. m.

1 sq. m. = 2.59 sq. kilometers

Measure of Volume

1 cu. centimeter = 0.061 cu. in.

1 cu. in. = 16.39 cu. centimeters

1 cu. decimeter= 0.0353 cu. ft.

1 cu. ft. = 28.317 cu. decimeters

1 cu. mr.= 1.308 cu. yd.

1 cu. yd. = 0.7646 cu. mr.

1 cu. mr.= 0.2759 cd.

1 stere= 1.308 cu. yd.

1 cord = 3.624 steres

1 stere= 0.2759 cd.

1 liter= 0.908 qt. dry

1 qt. dry = 1.101 liters

1 liter= 1.0567 qt. liq.

1 qt. liq. = 0.9463 liter

1 dekaliter= 2.6417 gal.

1 gal. = 0.3785 dekaliter

1 dekaliter= .135 pks.

1 peck = 0.881 dekaliter

1 hektoliter= 2.8375 bush.

1 bus. = 0.3524 hektoliter

{153}

Weights

1 gram. = 0.03527 ounce

1 ounce = 28.85 grams.

1 kilogram = 2.2046 lbs.

1 lb. = 0.4536 kilogram

1 metric ton = 1.1023 English ton

1 English ton = 0.9072 metric ton

British Weights and Measures

The British Weights and Measures Act of 1878, which superseded all previous laws upon the subject, enacts the measures which may legally be used in the United Kingdom. These are based upon the Standard Yard and the Standard Pound.

Further Acts of Parliament were passed in 1889 and 1904 dealing with the question of verification of weights and measures, and regulations were issued by the Board of Trade in 1907 respecting the inspection and stamping of weights and measures.

The Yard and the Pound are the only two independent standards for weights and measures, as the Gallon, the standard of capacity, both for dry and liquid measure, is not independent, but is based upon the Pound. The Gallon is defined in the Act of 1878 as the volume of ten Imperial Standard Pounds weight of distilled water weighed in air against brass weights, with the water and air at the temperature of 62° Fahrenheit and the barometer at 30 inches.

The multiples and subdivisions of the Standard Yard, Pound, and Gallon, as laid {154} down in the Act of 1878, are as follows; the legal abbreviations are given in brackets:

1. MEASURES OF LENGTH

- 12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.)
- 3 feet = 1 YARD (yd.)
- 5 1⁄2 yards = 1 rod, pole, or perch
- 4 poles = 1 chain or 100 links
- 10 chains = 1 furlong
- 8 furlongs = 1 mile

2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT

- 7000 grains (gr.) = 1 POUND (lb.)

Also

- 16 drams (dr.) = 1 ounce (oz.)

- 16 ounces = 1 POUND (lb.)

- 14 pounds = 1 stone

- 8 stone = 1 hundredweight (cwt.)

- 20 hundredweights = 1 ton

3. MEASURES OF CAPACITY

- 4 gills = 1 pint
- 2 pints = 1 quart
- 4 quarts = 1 GALLON
- 2 gallons = 1 peck
- 4 pecks = 1 bushel
- 8 bushels = 1 quarter
- 36 bushels = 1 chaldron

4. MEASURES OF LAND

- 40 square perches = 1 rood

- 4 roods = 1 acre

For certain special purposes, the following are also authorized by the Act of 1878 or by Order in Council under the Act:

1. For weighing gold and silver and precious stones: {155}

The Troy ounce, equal in weight to 480 grains. In dealing with quantities less than an ounce, the ounce is divided decimally, not into grains. Larger quantities than an ounce are stated in ounces. There is no Troy pound.

2. For the use of apothecaries and for selling drugs retail:

(a) MEASURES OF WEIGHT

- 20 grains = 1 scruple ()

- 3 scruples = 1 drachm ()

- 8 drachms = 1 Apothecaries’ ounce (oz. Apoth.)

(b) MEASURES OF CAPACITY

- 60 minims (min.) = 1 fluid drachm (fl. dr.)

- 8 fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.)

Of the Apothecaries’ measure of weight, the grain is the same as the Imperial grain; and the Apothecaries’ ounce contains 480 grains, like the Troy ounce. But, of the measures of capacity, the Apothecaries’ drachm is not the same as the Imperial dram, and the two words are spelt differently. A fluid ounce of distilled water at a temperature of 62° Fahrenheit is equal in weight to the Imperial ounce (437.5 grains), and the fluid drachm (54.6875 grains) is equal in weight to two Imperial drams.

ELECTRICAL MEASURES

It is customary to express electrical measures in terms of the centimeter, the gramme, and the second, and the value of the units {156} has been fixed by international agreement. The principal units, as described in the Order in Council of January 10, 1910, are as follows:

The OHM, the unit of resistance, is the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury, at the temperature of melting ice, 14.4521 grammes in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area, and of a length of 106.3 centimeters.

The AMPERE, the unit of current, is the unvarying electric current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water, deposits silver at the rate of 0.001118 of a gramme per second.

The VOLT, the unit of pressure, is the pressure which, when steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one ohm, will produce a current of one ampere.

The WATT, the unit of power, is 1⁄746 of one horse-power, the horse-power being 33,000 lb. raised one foot in one minute. The Board of Trade unit is 1000 Watt-hours.

In carbon lamps of 16-candle power (nominal) about four watts are required per candle power to give good economical results for domestic purposes. One Board of Trade unit will keep a 16-candle carbon lamp alight for about 16 hours; metallic filament lamps require considerably less. {157}

MEASURES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES

Builders’ Measurements

Stock or kiln bricks | 8 3⁄4 inches × 4 1⁄4 × 2 3⁄4
Welsh fire-bricks | 9 inches × 4 1⁄2 × 2 3⁄4
Paving bricks | 9 inches × 4 1⁄2 × 1 3⁄4
Square tiles | 9 3⁄4 inches × 9 3⁄4 × 1
Square tiles | 6 inches × 6 × 1
Dutch clinker bricks | 9 1⁄4 inches × 3 × 1 1⁄2

A Rod of Brickwork 16 1⁄2 feet × 16 1⁄2 feet × 1 1⁄2 brick thick = 306 cubic feet, or 11 1⁄3 cubic yards, and contains about 4500 bricks with about 75 cubic feet of mortar.

Ordinary bricks weigh about 7 lb. each; a load of 500 weighs about 1 ton 11 cwt. 1 qr.

A Piece of Wall Paper is 12 yd. long × 21 in. wide (English), and 9 yd. × 18 in. (French).

Timber and Wood

- 40 cubic feet rough, 50 cubic feet squared = 1 load

- 50 cubic feet of planks = 1 load
- 100 superficial feet = 1 square of flooring
- 120 Deals = 100

Width of Battens, 7 inches; Deals, 9 inches; Planks are 2 to 4 inches thick, and 10 or 11 inches wide. A Cord of Wood is 2 1⁄2 tons, or 128 cubic feet.

Corn

Wheat and other cereals are commonly sold by weight, the bushel being thus reckoned:

- Wheat,

- English, 60 lb.

- Foreign, 62 lb.

- Barley,

- English, 50 lb.

- French, 52 1⁄2 lb.

- Mediterranean, 50 lb. {158}

- Oats,

- English, 39 lb.

- Foreign, 38 and 40 lb.

- Rye and Maize, 60 lb.

- Buckwheat, 52 lb.

Hay and Straw

- Truss

- of Straw, 36 lb.

- of Old Hay, 56 lb.

- of New Hay (to September 1), 60 lb.

- Load, 36 Trusses —

- Straw, 11 cwt. 2 qr. 8 lb.;
- Old Hay, 18 cwt.;
- New Hay, 19 cwt. 1 qr. 4 lb.

Yard Measures

Cotton and Spun Silk Count. — Thread = 1 1⁄2 yards; Lea, or Skein, skn. = 120 yards; Hank, hk = 7 Skeins, or Leas = 840 yards; Spindle, spdl. = 18 Hanks; counts = the number of Hanks in 1 lb.; Bundle Hanks, either of 5 lb. or 10 lb.; Reels of Cotton vary from 30 to 1760 yards; they must be marked correctly. Bundles of Cotton are chiefly made up for export.

Worsted Count. — Wrap, 80 yards; Hank = 560 yards = 7 Wraps. Counts or Numbers are the number of hanks in a lb.

Linen Count. — The Hank or Lea is 300 yards, and the number of these in 1 lb. is the count of the yarn. A Spindle is 48 hanks; a Bundle is 200 hanks.

West of England Count. — The Hank is 320 yards, and the number of hanks in 1 lb. is the count of the yarn. {159}

Size of Barrel | Gals.
Firkin or Quarter Barrel | 9
Anker (10 gallons) | 10
Kilderkin, Rundlet, or 1⁄2 Barrel | 18
Barrel | 36
Tierce (42 gallons) | 42
Hogshead of Ale (1 1⁄2 barrels) | 54
Puncheon | 72
Butt of Ale | 108

In the British Dependencies

The Imperial weights and measures are the legal standards in the British Dominions and in India. In some Colonies the Metric system may also be used. In certain Colonies and in India, the old local measures are still employed to a considerable extent. Among these are the following:

INDIAN WEIGHTS (Bengal)

- Tola, unit of postage = 180 grains
- Chittak = 5 Tolas;
- Seer (16 Chittaks) = 2 9⁄35 lb.

- Imperial or Indian Maund = 82 2⁄7 lb. = 40 seer

Madras

- Viss = 3.09 lbs.,
- Maund = 25 lb.,
- Candy = 500 lb.

SOUTH AFRICAN LAND MEASURES

- Cape Morgen = 2.11654 English Acres
- Cape Feet = 1.033 English Feet
- Cape Rood = 12.396 English Feet

{160}

European Countries

The metric system of weights and measures has been adopted in the following countries:

Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Norway, Rumania, Servia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland.

In Russia the standard of length is the Sachine, which is equal to seven British feet; the standard of weight is the Pound, equal to nine-tenths of the British pound. The other measures are:

1. MEASURES OF LENGTH

- 16 vershok = 1 archine
- 3 archine = 1 sachine
- 500 sachine = 1 verst

2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT

- 3 zolotnik = 1 loth
- 32 loth = 1 pound
- 40 pounds = 1 pood
- 10 poods = 1 berkovatz

In Turkey the weights and measures differ considerably in different parts of the Empire, but the following are those used at Constantinople and the neighborhood:

1. MEASURES OF LENGTH

- 2 jeras = 1 rup

- 8 rups = 1 pek = 26.77 British inches

2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT

- 16 kirats = 1 dram
- 400 drams = 1 oke = 2.828 British pounds
- 44 okes = 1 kantar

{161}

The usual measure of capacity in Turkey is the Kileh, which is slightly larger than the British bushel.

TIME AND WATCH ON BOARD SHIP

Time. — Time is kept by means of “Bells,” although there is but one bell on the ship; and to strike the clapper properly against the bell requires some skill.

First, two strokes of the clapper at the interval of a second, then an interval of two seconds; then two more strokes with a second’s interval apart, then a rest of two seconds, thus:

Bell, one second; B., two secs.; B. s.; B. ss.; B. s.; B. ss.; B.

Watch. — For purposes of discipline, and to divide the work fairly, the crew is mustered in two divisions: the Starboard (right side, looking forward) and the Port (left). The day commences at noon, and is thus divided:

Afternoon Watch | noon to 4 P.M.
First Dog Watch | 4 P.M. to 6 P.M.
Second Dog Watch | 6 P.M. to 8 P.M.
First Watch | 8 P.M. to midnight
Middle Watch | 12 A.M. to 4 A.M.
Morning Watch | 4 A.M. to 8 A.M.
Forenoon Watch | 8 A.M. to noon

This makes seven Watches, which enables the crew to keep them alternately, as the Watch which is on duty in the forenoon one {162} day has the afternoon the next day, and the men who have only four hours’ rest one night have eight hours the next. This is the reason for having Dog Watches, which are made by dividing the hours between 4 P.M. and 8 P.M. into two Watches.

PARCEL POST — TABLE OF RATES

Weight of Parcel | Local Rate | 1st zone up to 50 miles | 2d zone 50 to 150 miles | 3d zone 150 to 300 miles | 4th zone 300 to 600 miles
1 lb. | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.08
2 lbs. | 0.06 | .08 | .10 | .12 | .14
3 lbs. | 0.07 | .11 | .14 | .17 | .20
4 lbs. | .08 | .14 | .18 | .22 | .26
5 lbs. | .09 | .17 | .22 | .27 | .32
6 lbs. | .10 | .20 | .26 | .32 | .38
7 lbs. | .11 | .23 | .30 | .37 | .44
8 lbs. | .12 | .26 | .34 | .42 | .50
9 lbs. | .13 | .29 | .38 | .47 | .56
10 lbs. | .14 | .32 | .42 | .52 | .62
11 lbs. | .15 | .35 | .46 | .57 | .68

Weight of Parcel | 5th zone 600 to 1000 miles | 6th zone 1000 to 1400 miles | 7th zone 1400 to 1800 miles | 8th zone all over 1800 miles
1 lb. | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.12
2 lbs. | .16 | .19 | .21 | .24
3 lbs. | .23 | .28 | .31 | .36
4 lbs. | .30 | .37 | .41 | .48
5 lbs. | .37 | .46 | .51 | .60
6 lbs. | .44 | .55 | .61 | .72
7 lbs. | .51 | .64 | .71 | .84
8 lbs. | .58 | .73 | .81 | .96
9 lbs. | .65 | .82 | .91 | 1.08
10 lbs. | .72 | .91 | 1.01 | 1.20
11 lbs. | .79 | 1.00 | 1.11 | 1.32

{163}

INDEX

“A” and “an,” spacing of, 60.

“a” (negative prefix), compounds of, 50.

Abbreviations,

- use of period with, 12;

- of firms and corporations; capitalization of, 23;

- of degrees, capitalization of, 25;

- of titles and States, spacing of, 59–60;

- of italicized words in literary and legal references, 64;

- of dates and usages thereto, 65;
- of proper names, 66;
- of Christian names, 66–68;
- of titles, 68–75;
- of commercial terms, 76–77;
- of geographical terms, 77–81;
- miscellaneous, 81–89;
- scriptural, 90;
- of monetary signs, 90–91;
- of mathematical signs, 91–92;
- of medical signs, 92;
- not used in salutation of letters, 117.

-able and -ible,

- spelling of words terminating in, 38–39;

- in division of words, 53.

Abstract ideas: capitalization of personified, 23.

Accents:

- list of symbols, 2;

- list of accented words, 36–37;

- retention of, in foreign words used in English, 36–37.

“Accept,” correct use of, 101.

Acts, juridical, capitalization of, 27.

A.D. (anno Domini):

- set in small caps, 30;

- spacing of, 59.

“Addenda,” plural of addendum, 109.

Address (of letters) the: business, formal, and informal, 116.

Adjectival nouns, capitalization of, 24.

Adjectives:

- use of comma with, 4, 5, 8;

- capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26;

- capitalization, with proper names, 26;
- compound, 46;
- ending in -ical, how to divide, 54.

ad loc., italicized, 64.

“Administration,” capitalization of, 25.

“Admire,” correct use of, 101.

“Admit,” correct use of, 101.

“Admittance,” correct use of, 99.

Adverbs:

- use of comma with, 4, 5;

- ending in “-ly” not to be hyphenated with adjectives and participles, 46;

- compound, treatment of, 51;

- position of, 101.

æ, rules for use of, 33.

“Affable,” correct use of, 101.

“Affect,” correct use of, 101.

Ages, to be spelled out, 32.

“Aggravate,” correct use of, 101.

“Ain’t,” correct use of, 101.

Alford, Dean: on use of the comma, 4.

Algebraic, unknown quantities italicized, 64.

Alignment, of quotation marks, 16.

Alliances, political, capitalization of names of, 27.

“All right,” correct use of, 101.

“Alternative,” correct use of, 101.

A.M. (ante meridiem):

- set in small capitals, 30;

- spacing of, 59.

Ampere. See Electrical measures.

Ampersand (&), the use of, 66.

Analogy of language, influence in diction, 99.

“And,”

- correct use of, 101;

- when to use comma before, 5.

“Ante,” compounds with, 50.

“Anti,” compounds with, 50.

Antithetical clauses. See Clauses.

“Any place,” use of, 101.

Apocrypha, list of abbreviations for, 90.

Apostrophe:

- rules for use of, 18–19;
- in designating the possessive case, 18;
- in forming plurals of numerals, 19;

- in forming plurals of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a sibilant, 19;

- in indicating omission of letters or figures, 19;

- in indicating omission of letters in contracted words, 19;

- omission of, in words contracted in poetry, 19.

Apothecaries’ weight, table of, 150.

“Apparently,” correct use of, 101.

“Apt,” correct use of, 102.

Art, titles of works of, to be quoted, 17.

Articles:

- definite, not to be treated as part of title of magazines and newspapers, 30;

- correct use of, 102.

“As,” correct use of, 102.

Astronomical terms:

- capitalization of, 23;

- names of stars and constellations, italicized, 64.

“At,” correct use of, 102.

“At length,” correct use of, 102.

“Aught,” correct use of, 102.

“Avail,” correct use of, 102.

Avoirdupois weight, table of, 150.

“Aware,” correct use of, 102.

“Awful,” correct use of, 102.

“Badly,” correct use of, 102.

“Bank on,” use of, 102.

Barrels, measures of, in gallons, 159.

B.C. (before Christ):

- set in small caps, 30;

- spacing of, 59.

“Beg,” correct use of, 103.

Bells, use of on board ship, 161.

“Bi-,” compounds with, 50.

Bible:

- capitalization of names of books, divisions and versions of, 20;

- abbreviations for books of, 90.

Biblical:

- parables, capitalization of, 20;

- general terms, capitalization of, 21;

- capitalization of names and terms of, 20–21;

- books, abbreviations for, 90.

Blocked indention:

- in general, 56;

- of address of letters, 116.

Books:

- capitalization of titles, 26;
- italicizing of titles, 62;
- biblical abbreviations of, 90.

Botanical terms:

- capitalization of, 23;

- names of genera and species, italicized, 64.

Box-heads, omission of period after, 12.

Brackets, rules for use of, 18.

Break, or sudden change in sentence, indicated by dash, 13.

Briefness of form preferred, 99.

“Bring,” use of, 103.

British Dependencies, weights and measures of, 159.

British weights and measures, 153.

“Brother,” compounds with, 47.

Builders’ measures, table of, 157.

Buildings, capitalization of names of, 23.

Business letter. See Letter.

“But,” correct use of, 103.

“By,” compounds with, 48.

C, soft, do not divide on, 53.

“Cabinet,” capitalization of, 25.

Campbell, Dr. Thomas, canons of, 99–100.

“Can,” distinguished from may, 103.

Canada, postal rates to, 135.

“Cannot but,” correct use of, 103.

“Can’t seem,” correct use of, 103.

Capitalization:

of religious terms, 20–22;
of proper names, 22–24;
of titles, 24–26;
of institutional terms, 26–28;
of references, 28;
of ordinals, 29;
in general, 29–30;
of abbreviation of academic degrees, 25;
of abstract ideas personified, 23;
of acts juridical, 27;
of adjectives derived from proper nouns, 22;
of adjectives and nouns designating definite geographical regions, 22;
of astronomical terms, 23;
of political alliances, 27;
of books of the Bible, 20;
of titles of books, 26;
of botanical terms, 23;
of buildings, 23;
of “church,” 20;
of civic titles, 25;
of word following a colon, 26;
of compound titles, 21;
of hyphenated compounds, 29;
of sessions of Congress, 29;
of conventions, 25;
of corporations — names and abbreviations, 23;
of names of dynasties, 29;
of ecclesiastical appellations, 26;
of epithets used as proper names, 22;
of titles of essays, 26;
of “father,” 22;
of “Fathers” — early church, 22;
of foreign titles, as prefixes, 25–26;
of geographical terms, 22–23;
of geological terms, 23;
of “gospel,” 20–21;
of “government,” 25;
of historical epochs, 22;
of holidays, 26–27;
of judiciary bodies, 28;
of names of laws, 27;
of names of legislative bodies, 28;
of letters (correspondence), 29;
of units of measurement, 29–30;
of medical terms, 23;
of military terms, 25;
of monastic orders, 20;
of “mother,” 24;
of months of year, 23;
of names for the Evil One, 21;
names of political parties, 27;
names of races, tribes, etc., 27;
names of regiments, 29;
of names of societies, 25;
of popular names for the solar system, 23;
of streets, parks, etc., 23;
of titles of parables (biblical), 20;
of titles of periodicals, 30;
of “Pilgrim Fathers,” 22;
of poetry, 29;
of political alliances, 27;
of political divisions, 28;
of pronouns referring to the Deity, 21;
of quotations, 29–30;
of “revolutionary,” 22;
of scientific terms, 23;
of social organizations, 25;
of side-heads, 29;
of “State,” 24–25;
of words on title-pages, 30;
of names of treaties, 27;
of “van” and “von” as prefixes, 25–26;
of words with special meanings, 29;
of zoölogical terms, 23;
rules for, 20–30.

Capitalized words, list of:

- religious, 21;

- proper, 24.

Capitals:

- original use of, 20;

- rules for use of, 20–30;

- and small capitals, rules for use of, 28–30;

- how indicated in MS., 30.

Cases: confusion of, 103.

Caxton: his influence on punctuation, 9.

Centered head-lines, omission of period after, 12.

Centigrade. See Thermometers.

Centuries, numbers of, to be spelled out, 32.

cf., to be set in roman, 64.

“Cherubim,” plural of cherub, 109.

“Childlike,” correct use of, 103.

Christ, pronouns referring to, how capitalized, 21.

Christian names, abbreviation of, 66–68.

“Church,” when capitalized, 20.

Circa (ca.), italicized, 64.

Circular measure, table of, 151.

Circulars, postal rates and regulations for, 130.

Citation of legal causes:

- names of, italicized, 64;

- of author’s own words, quotation marks used, 16;

- of different works by same author or by different authors without intervening original matter, to be quoted, 16.

Civil titles, capitalization of, 25.

Classes of mail, rates, etc., 129–132.

Clauses, use of comma with:

- inverted, 5;
- independent, 6;
- relative, 6;
- dependent, 6;
- parenthetical, 5;
- co-ordinate, 6;
- antithetical, 7;
- Use of dash before concluding clause, 13.

Cloth measure, table of, 151.

“Co-,” compounds with, 47–48.

Coins, foreign: list of, showing comparative values, 145–147.

“College,” capitalization of, 27.

Colon:

- definition and use of, 10–11;

- capitalization, following use of, 26, 29, 30;

- use of in formal salutatory phrases beginning letters, 11, 117;

- in titles of literary references, 11;

- of names of publishers, 11;

- first word following, in quotation, capitalized, 11;

- use of, with quotation-marks, 11;

- before formal quotations, 11;

- separating chapter and verse in scriptural references, 11;

- in separating divisions of time, 11;

- use of hair-space before, 59;

- separating city of publication and publisher’s name, 11.

“Colonel,” when spelled in full, and when abbreviated, 68–69.

“Color,” hyphenization of compounds of, 46.

“Come,” correct use of, 103.

Comma:

- definition and use of, 4;
- when omitted, 7–8;
- omitted between two adjectives, 4;
- use of, with adverbs, 4, 5;
- with adjectives, 4, 5;
- before “but,” 6.

- With clauses:

- antithetical, 7;
- co-ordinate, 6, 7;
- dependent, 6;
- parenthetical, 5;
- and relative, 6.

- Use of:

- with conjunctions, 4–7;

- separating degrees from names of persons, 7;

- indicating ellipses, 7;
- separating numbers, 7;
- with quotation-marks, 4;

- with phrases, inverted and in opposition, 5–6;

- before “of” in connection with residence, 7;

- in salutatory phrase, 7, 117;
- in inverted sentences, 5;
- separating titles from names, 6;
- separating vocative words, 7;
- substitution of dashes for, 14;
- use of with exclamation point, 15;
- rules for use of, 4–8;

- omitted with pronouns used with nouns for emphasis, 8.

Comments, notes of, inclosed in brackets, 18.

Commercial terms, abbreviation of, 76–77.

“Common,” correct use of, 103.

“Company”:

- capitalization of, 23;
- abbreviation of, 66;
- use of (&) with, 66.

Compass:

- capitalization of points of, 22, 23, 24;

- hyphenization of points of, 49.

Complimentary close, of letters, 121.

Compound:

- adjectives, 46;

- adverbs, 51.

Compound titles, spelling, abbreviation, and capitalization of, 68–96.

Compound words:

- general theory of and rules for, 45–51;
- list of, 49;
- division of, to be avoided, 54.

Compounds, hyphenated: capitalization of, 29.

Compounds, with:

“a-” (negative prefix), 50;
“ante,” 50;
“anti,” 50;
“bi,” 50;
“brother,” 47;
“by,” 48;
“co,” 47–48;
“daughter,” 47;
“demi,” 50;
“deutero,” 51;
“elect,” 47;
“electro,” 51;
“ex,” 47;
“extra,” 48;
“eye,” 51;
“father,” 47;
“fellow,” 47;
“foster,” 47;
“general,” 47;
“god,” 47;
“half,” 47;
“holder,” 51;
“in,” 50;
“infra,” 48;
“inter,” 50;

“intra,” 50;

- (negative prefix), 50;

“life,” 47;
“like,” 49;
“man,” 49;
“master,” 47;
“mid,” 46;
“monger,” 51;
“mother,” 47;
“non-,” 50;
“over,” 50;
“parent,” 47;
“post,” 50;
“pre,” 47–48;
“pseudo,” 51;
“quarter,” 47;
“quasi,” 48;
“re,” 47–48;
“school,” 51;
“self,” 47;
“semi,” 48, 50;
“sister,” 47;
“sub,” 50;
“sulpho,” 51;
“super,” 50;
“supra,” 48;
“thermo,” 51;
“to,” 50;
“tree,” 49;
“tri,” 50;
“ultra,” 48;
“un” (negative prefix), 50;
“under,” 50;
“vice,” 46;
“woman,” 49;
“world,” 47.
Concealed mail matter, law concerning, 133.
“Confess,” use of, 103.

Congress:

- sessions of, capitalization, 29;

- numbers of, spelled out, 32.

Conjunctions:

- use of comma with, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8;

- capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26.

“Conscious,” correct use of, 103.

Consonants, construction of, rules for division of words, 52–53.

Constellations, names of, italicized, 64.

“Constitution,” capitalization of, 25.

“Continual,” correct use of, 103.

Contraction of word, use of apostrophe, 19.

Conventions, capitalization of names of, 25.

Co-ordinate clauses. See Clauses.

Corporations, capitalization of names, of abbreviations, and of “Co.,” 23.

Corrections, indicated by use of brackets, 18.

Correctness, a requisite of discourse, 99.

Credits, italicizing of, 62.

Criticisms, indicated by use of brackets, 18.

Cuba, postal rates to, 135.

Cubic measure, table of, 152.

Cut-in side notes, omission of period after, 12.

Dashes:

- use of, with changed construction, dates, abrupt terminations, rhetorical emphasis, verse and page references, short, snappy sentences, omitted letters, concluding clauses, 13;

- for separating subject-matter from its authority, 13;

- to precede addition to completed sentence, 14;

- substitution of, for commas or parenthesis, 14;

- with colon, to mark long quotation, 14;
- substitution of, for quotation-marks, 14;
- misuse of, 12;
- rules for, 13–14;
- use in France, 14;
- use of hair-space with, 59;
- examples of, 60;

- use of in salutatory phrases of letters, 117.

“Data,” plural of datum, 109.

Date-lines, omission of period after, 12.

Dates:

- use of dash to connect, 13;
- abbreviation of, 65–66;
- st, d, rd, and th, to be omitted, 65;

- of letters, where placed, when capitalized and italicized, 30;

- ult., inst., and prox., not used, 65;
- the Dewey, 66;
- of letters, 115.

“Daughter,” compounds with, 47.

Days of week:

- capitalization of, 23;

- abbreviation of, 65–66.

“Deadly,” correct use of, 103.

Decades, specific references to, spelled out, 32.

“Decided,” correct use of, 104.

“Definite,” correct use of, 104.

Degrees:

- capitalization and abbreviations of, 25;

- use of comma separating, from name of person, 6.

“Demean,” correct use of, 104.

“Demi,” compounds with, 50.

Dependent clauses, use of comma, 6.

Derivation, influence of, in division, 52, 53.

“Deutero,” compounds with, 51.

Devil. See Evil One.

Dewey abbreviations of dates, the, 66.

Diction,

- correct and faulty, 99–113;
- Dr. Campbell’s canons, 99;
- use of standard authors, 100;
- list of words and phrases, 101–113.

Dictionary, the function of, 100.

“Different,” correct use of, 104.

Diphthongs, general rules for, 33.

Directions, use of brackets in indicating, 18.

“Directly,” use of, 104.

Disbelief, in statement, indicated by use of exclamation-point, 15.

“Discover,” correct use of, 104.

Display composition, use of period after, 12.

Division of words:

- rules for, 52–54;
- avoid unnecessary, 52;
- on two letters to be avoided, 53.

Divisional mark, avoid separating from matter it pertains to, 54.

Dollars ($),

- no space between symbol and following figures, 60;

- table of monetary signs, 90–91.

Domestic postal rates, 134.

“Donne,” plural of donna, 109.

“Don’t,” correct use of, 104.

Drop-folios, enclosed by brackets, 18.

Dry measure, table of, 150.

Dynasties:

- capitalization of names, 29;

- numbers of, to be spelled out, 32.

“Each other,” correct use of, 104.

Ecclesiastical appellations, capitalization of, 26.

“Effect,” correct use of, 104.

e.g., set in roman, 64.

“Egoists,” correct use of, 104.

“Either,” correct use of, 104.

“Elect,” compounds with, 47.

Electrical measures, 155–156.

“Electro,” compounds with, 51.

Ellipses:

- comma indicating, 7;
- period indicating, 12;
- to be treated as part of quotation, 17.

Emphasis, rhetorical:

- use of dash to secure, 13;
- of exclamation-point, 15;
- of paragraph, 57–58;
- of italics, 62.

En échelon indention:

- described, 56;

- use of in addressing letters, 116;

“Enormity,” correct use of, 104.

“Enthuse,” (verb) correct use of, 104.

Enumerations, use of parentheses in connection with letters or figures used to express subdivisions in, 18.

Envelopes, rules for addressing, 123–124.

Epithets:

- capitalized when used as proper names, 22;

- hyphenization of compound personal, 49.

Essays, capitalization of titles, 26.

etc., quotation-marks to include, 17.

Euphony, authority of, 100.

European countries, weights and measures of, 159–160.

“Every place,” written everywhere, 104.

Evil One, the capitalization of names for, 21.

“ex-,” prefixed to titles, 47.

“Excellent,” never qualified, 104.

“Except” (verb), correct use of, 104.

“Exceptional,” correct use of, 105.

Exclamation-point:

- proper use of, 14–15;
- with quotation-marks, 14–15;
- origin, 15;
- expressing strong emotion, 15;
- sarcasm or doubt, 15;
- use of, with comma, 15;
- as distinguished from vocative, 15;
- use of hair-space preceding, 59.

“Expect,” correct use of, 105.

Expositions, capitalization of names of, 25.

“Extra,” compounds with, 48.

“Eye,” compounds with, 51.

Fahrenheit. See Thermometers.

“Falseness,” correct use of, 105.

Family names, capitalization of, 24.

“Fathers”:

- capitalization of, 24;

- use of compounds with, 47.

“Federal,” capitalization of, 25.

“Fellow,” compounds of, 47.

Figures:

- rules for use of, 31–33;

- use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19;

- used to mark divisions in enumerations, to be placed in parentheses, 18;

- percentage, figures always to be used, 31;
- use of, in statistics, 32;
- spacing of, 59;
- spacing between, and $, £, 60.

“Fix,” correct use of, 105.

Foreign languages:

- capitalization of titles, as von, le, da, etc., 25–26;

- spelling of words ending in re (French), 36;

- words and phrases, when italicized, 62–63;

- list of italicized and not italicized words, 63;

- use of accents, 36–37.

Foreign titles, capitalization of, 25–26.

Foreign words, plurals of. See Plurals.

Formal letter. See Letter.

“Former,” correct use of, 105.

Forwarding of mail matter, 132.

“Foster,” compounds with, 47.

Fractions, use of hyphens in spelling, 48.

France, use of dash in, 14.

French endings in re, not to be used, 36.

G, soft, do not divide on, 53.

“General,” compounds with, 47.

“Gentleman,” correct use of, 105.

“Gentleman friend,” to be avoided, 105.

Geographical terms:

- capitalization of, 22;

- abbreviations of, 77–81.

Geological terms:

- capitalization of, 23;

- italicized, 64.

Geometric symbols, as unknown quantities, italics, 64.

“Go,” correct use of, 105.

God:

- pronouns referring to, capitalization of, 21;

- compounds with, 47.

“Gospel,” when capitalized, 20–21.

“Got,” correct use of, 105.

“Gotten”:

- obsolete, 105;

- improper use of, 105.

“Government,” capitalization of, 25.

Governmental terms, capitalization of, 25.

Grain and Hay, measures of, 157–158.

“Guess,” correct use of, 105.

Hair-space, use of, 59–61.

“Half,” compounds with, 47.

Half-diamond indention, 56.

“Hanged,” distinguished from hung, 105.

Hanging indention, described, 56.

“Hardly,” never preceded by not, 105.

“He,” correct use of, 105.

Headings:

- capitalization of certain words, 30;

- of letters (correspondence), 115.

Head-lines, omission of period after, 12.

“Healthful,” correct use of, 105.

“Her,” correct use of, 106.

“Him,” correct use of, 106.

Historical epochs, capitalization of appellation for, 24.

“Hoi polloi,” never preceded by the, 106.

“Holder,” compounds with, 51.

Holidays, capitalization of names of, 26–27.

“Holy,” capitalization of, 21.

“Honorable,” correct use of, 106.

Honorary titles, capitalization of, 25.

“Hung,” distinguished from hanged, 106.

Hyphenated compounds:

- capitalization of, 29;

- avoid division of, 54.

Hyphenization, rules for, 45–51.

Hyphens:

- list of hyphenated words, 49;
- rules for use of, 45–51;
- purpose of, 19;
- use of hair-space with, 59.
- See Compounds.

“I”:

- capitalization of word, 29.

- See under Me.

Ibid., italicized, 64.

-ible and -able. See -able.

-ical, in divisions, 54.

Idem, italicized, 64.

i.e., set in roman, 64.

“If,” correct use of, 106.

Illustrations, legends beneath, omission of period, 12.

“In,” correct use of, 106.

“In-” (negative prefix), compounds with, 50.

Indention:

- rules for, 55–56;
- prose, each paragraph indented, 55;
- numbered paragraphs, treatment of, 55;
- of poetry, reverse indention, 55;
- of quotations, 55;

- different forms of, viz.: En échelon, Hanging, Half-diamond, Lozenge, Blocked, and Irregular, 55–56;

- use of in addressing letters, 116.

Independent sentences, first word capitalized after colon, 29.

Infinitive, the, never separated from to, 106.

Informal letter. See Letter.

“Infra,”

- compounds with, 48;

- italicization of, 64.

-ing: verbal nouns (ending in) distinguished from participles, 106.

Initials, not to be divided, 54.

“Inside of,” distinguished from within, 106.

Inst., not used, 65.

Institutional terms, capitalization of, 26–28.

“Inter,” compounds with, 50.

International money orders, fees for, 137.

Interrogation-point:

- origin of, 15;
- use of, with quotations, 16;
- after direct questions, 16;
- to express doubt, 16;
- omission in indirect questions, 16;
- use of hair-space preceding, 59.

“Intra,” compounds with, 50.

“Invent,” distinguished from discover, 106.

Ironical word or phrase, use of quotation marks for, 17.

Irregular indention, described, 55.

-ise and -ize, spelling of words terminating in, 37–38.

Italicizing:

- of abbreviations in literary and legal references, 64;

- of ad loc., 64;
- of algebraic unknown quantities, 64;
- of astronomical names, 64;
- of titles of books, 62;

- of names of botanical genera and species, 64;

- of names in citations of legal causes, 64;
- of circa (ca.), 64;
- of names of constellations, 64;
- of credits, at end of article, 62;
- for purpose of emphasis, 62;
- of names of geological subjects, 64;
- of geometric unknown quantities, 64;
- of ibid., 64;
- of idem, 64;
- of infra, 64;
- of loc. cit., 64;
- of literary references, 64;

- of names of scientific genera and species, 64;

- of stars, 64;

- of titles of newspapers and periodicals, 64;

- of op. cit., 64;
- of passim, 64;
- of poetry, 62;
- in prefaces, 62;
- of word “Resolved,” 64;
- in running heads, 62;

- of abbreviations of “shillings,” “pence,” 64;

- of names of ships, 62;
- of side-heads, 62;
- of signatures, 62;
- of supra, 64;
- of s.v., 64;
- of vide, 64;
- of zoölogical genera, 64;
- rules for, 62–64;

- lists of foreign words, italicized and not, 62–64;

- of dates in letters, 30.

Italics:

- origin of, 62;

- rules for, 62–64;

- list of foreign words and phrases not italicized, 63;

- list of italicized words, 63;
- how to indicate in MS., 64;
- italic punctuation marks, following, 64.

J, do not divide on, 53.

Journals. See Periodicals.

Judiciary bodies, capitalization of names of, 28.

Juridical acts, treaties, etc., capitalization of names of, 27.

Kerned letters, spacing of, 60.

“Kind,” correct use of, 106.

“Kind of,” not followed by a or an, 106.

“Lady.” See under Gentleman.

“Lady friend.” See under Gentleman friend.

Language, must convey writer’s meaning, 99.

“Last,” distinguished from latest, 107.

“Latter,” correct use of, 107.

Laws, capitalization of names of, 27.

“Lay,” distinguished from lie, 107.

Legal references, words, phrases, and abbreviations italicized, 64.

Legends, omission of period after, 12.

Legislative bodies, capitalization of names of, 28.

“Less,” distinguished from fewer, 107.

Letter, Business:

- heading, 115;
- address, 116;
- salutation, 116;
- text of, 118;
- complimentary close, 121;
- signature, 122;
- envelope, 123;
- correct example of, 126.

Letter, Formal:

- heading, 115;
- address, 116;
- salutation, 117–118;
- text of, 120;
- complimentary close, 122;
- signature, 122;
- envelope, 123;
- correct examples of, 126–128.

Letter, Informal:

- heading, 115;
- address, 116;
- salutation, 117;
- text of, 120;
- complimentary close, 121–122;
- signature, 122;
- envelope, 123;
- correct examples of, 126–128.

Letter writing:

- introductory remarks on, 114;
- rules for, 115–125;
- examples of correct, 126–128;
- the signature, 122–123;
- envelope, 123–124;
- postal cards, 125;
- in general, 125;

- business, formal, informal, treatment of, 115–122.

Letters (correspondence):

- capitalization, punctuation, etc., rules for, 11, 12, 29;

- dates, where placed and when capitalized, 30;

- postal regulations, 129–141.

Letters:

- use of dash to indicate omission of, 13;

- use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19;

- used to mark divisions in enumerations, to be set in parentheses, 18;

- spacing of superior and inferior, 59.

“Liable,” distinguished from likely, 107.

“Life,” compounds with, 47.

“Like,” compounds with, 49.

“Likely,” correct use of, 107.

Linear measure, table of, 150.

Liquid measure, table of, 150.

Literary references: minor subdivisions, not capitalized, 28.

“Loan,” not used as a verb, 107.

“Locate,” distinguished from settle, 107.

Loc. cit., italicized, 64.

“Love,” distinguished from like, 107.

Lozenge indention, described, 56.

“Luxuriant,” distinguished from luxurious, 107.

“Mad,” distinguished from angry, 107.

Magazines. See Periodicals.

Mail matter:

- first class, defined, 129;
- second class, 129;
- third class, 130;
- fourth class, 131;
- wrapping of, 132;
- forwarding of, 132;
- what cannot be mailed, 132;
- concealed matter, 133;
- domestic rates, 134;
- foreign rates, 134;

- rates for Cuba, Mexico, Canada, and Panama, 135;

- foreign parcels post, 136;
- money orders, 137;
- international money orders, 137;
- registered, domestic, and foreign, 138;
- special delivery, 139;

- postal distances and time from New York, 140.

“Major,” when spelled in full, 68.

“Man,”

- compounds with, 49.

- See under Gentleman.

Manuscript:

- how to indicate capitals in, 30;

- italics in, 64.

Manutius, Aldus:

- relation to punctuation of, 3;

- designer of italic types, 62.

Mariners’ measure, table of, 151.

“Master,” compounds with, 47.

Mathematical signs, list of, 91–92.

“May.” See under Can.

“Me,” correct use of, 107.

“Means,” either singular or plural, 107.

Measures:

- tables of, and general rules for, 149–160;
- linear, 150;
- square, 150;
- dry, 150;
- liquid, 150;
- paper, 151;
- time, 151;
- circular, 151;
- cloth, 151;
- mariners’, 151;
- surveyors’, 151;
- cubic, 152;
- British, 152;
- electrical, 155;
- builders’, 157;
- of timber and wood, 157;
- grain, 157;
- hay, 158;
- yard, 158;
- of barrels, 159;
- in the British Dependencies, 159;
- in European countries, 159–160.

Medical:

- signs, list of, 92;

- capitalization of, terms, 23.

“Memoranda,” plural of memorandum, 109.

Metric system:

- of weights and measures, 149;

- of equivalents, 152.

Mexico, postal rates to, 135.

“Mid,” compounds with, 46.

Military bodies, numbers of, spelled out, 32.

Miscellaneous measures, table of, 151.

Miscellaneous terms, abbreviations of, 81–89.

Monastic orders, capitalization of, 20.

Monetary signs,

- abbreviations of, 90–91;

- spacing of, 60.

Money order fees, 137.

“Monger,” compounds with, 51.

Months of year:

- capitalization of, 23;
- numbers preceding spelled out, 32;
- abbreviations of, 65–66.

“Most,” avoid using for almost, 107.

“Mother”:

- capitalization of, 24;

- compounds with, 47.

“Must,” correct use of, 107.

“Mutual,” distinguished from common, 108.

Names:

- capitalization of proper, 22–24;

- of publishers, in literary references, use of colon, 11;

- of societies, expositions, and conventions, capitalization of, 25;

- of races, tribes, etc., capitalization of, 27;

- abbreviation of proper, 66;

- Christian, 66–68;

- of scientific genera and species, italicized, 64;

- of stars, italicized, 64.

“Negligence,” distinguished from neglect, 108.

“Neither,” correct use of, 108.

“News,” is singular, 108.

Newspapers:

- titles of, article not treated as part of, 30;

- titles of, italicized, 62;

- postal rates and regulations for, 129.

New Testament, list of abbreviations for, 90.

“Nice,” correct use of, 108.

Nobility, capitalization of titles of, 25.

“No place,” written nowhere, 108.

“Non-,” compounds with, 50.

“Nor.” See under Or.

“Not . . . but,” double negative, 108.

Notes, use of brackets in enclosing, 18.

“Notorious,” correct use of, 108.

Nouns:

- capitalization of geographical, simple and compounded, 22;

- capitalization of, followed by capitalized roman numeral, 28;

- hyphenization of, standing in objective relation to each other, 46–47;

- formation of possessive case of common and proper, 18–19;

- plural of polysyllabic proper ending in sibilant, how formed, 19;

- verbal, ending in -ing, distinguished from participles, 106.

“Nowhere near,” vulgarism for not nearly, 108.

Number:

- pronouns must agree with their antecedents, 108;

- of nouns and verbs must agree, 108.

Numbers:

- use of comma with, 7;

- when to spell out, 31–33;

- use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19;

- percentage, figures always used, 31;

- in statistics, figures used, 32;

- in ordinary matter, of less than three digits, to be spelled out, 32;

- in groups, varying in digits use figures, 32;

- round, treatment of, 32;

- commencing a sentence, spelled out, 32;

- expressed in figures, not to be divided, 54.

Numerals:

- use of period, following roman, 12;
- of apostrophe in forming plural, 19;
- roman, origin and early use of, 93–96;
- list of roman and arabic, 96–97;
- rules for use of roman, 98.

“O,” capitalization of word, 29.

œ, rules for use of 33.

“Of”:

- correct use of, 108;

- use of comma before, in connection with proper name, 7.

Ohm. See Electrical measures.

Op. cit., italicized, 64.

“Open punctuation,”

- favored by best usage, 3–4;

- and “close punctuation,” 3–4.

“Or,” correct use of, 108.

Orders, monastic, capitalization of, 20.

Ordinals, capitalization of, 29.

Orthography:

- rules of, 33–36;
- final f, l, or s, 33;
- final consonant following diphthong, 33;

- added terminations after final accented syllable, 33–34;

- after diphthong or two vowels, 34;

- after final syllable ending in two consonants, 34;

- after final silent e, 34–35;
- after ce or ge, 35;
- after final e in participles, 35;
- after final ie, 35;
- after final y, 35–36;
- of French endings in -re, 36;
- of possessives of proper nouns, 36;
- of -sion and -tion, 36;
- of -or and -our, 34.

“Ought,” never combined with had, 109

-our, words ending in, 34.

“Out loud,” never used for aloud, 109.

“Over” compounds with, 50.

Panama, postal rates to, 135.

Paper measure, table of, 151.

Parables, biblical, capitalization of titles, 20.

Paragraphs,

- explanation of, 57;
- rules for, 55–58;
- unity, 57;
- emphasis, 57, 58;
- length, 57;
- coherence, 57;

- connective words between related sentences, 58;

- space used proportional to importance, 58;
- length, 58;
- indention of, 55, 57, 58, 60.

Parcel post,

- domestic, 131, 162;

- foreign, 136.

“Parent,” compounds of, 47.

Parentheses:

- substitution of dashes for, 14;
- use of, with interrogation-point, 16;
- placing of period with, 11;
- defined, 18;

- use of, in figures or letters to mark divisions in enumerations, 18;

- subdivided by brackets, 18.

Parenthetical clauses. See Clauses.

Parks, capitalization of names of, 23.

“Partake of,” never used for eat, 109.

Participles:

- list of, how spelled, 37;

- not to be hyphenated with adverbs ending in “-ly,” 46;

- ending in -ing, distinguished from verbal nouns, 106.

Particles, in French, German, Italian, and Dutch, capitalization of, 25–26.

Parties, political, capitalization of names of, 27.

“Party,” never used for person, 109.

Passim, italicized, 64.

Pence. See Shillings.

Peoples, capitalization of names or epithets of, 27.

“Per,” correct use of, 109.

Percentage, use of figures in, 31.

“Perception,” correct use of, 109.

Periodicals:

- titles of, definite article not to be treated as part of, 30;

- use of italics for, 62;

- postal rates, etc., 129.

Periods:

- placing of, in connection with quotation-marks, 11;

- rules for use of, 11–12;
- omitted after running-heads, 12;
- after box-heads in tables, 12;
- after cut-in side notes, 12;
- after centered head-lines, 12;
- after legends, 12;
- after subheads, 12;
- after date-lines, 12;
- after signatures, 12;
- after titles, blocked headings, etc., 12;
- after roman numerals, 12;
- use of, after abbreviations, 12;
- after a complete sentence, 12;
- to indicate an ellipsis, 12.

Personifications: abstract ideas, capitalization of, 23.

Phrases:

- inverted, use of comma, 5;
- in apposition, use of comma, 6;
- salutatory, use of comma, 7;
- foreign, italicization of, 62–63.

“Pilgrim Fathers,” capitalization of, 22.

Plays, rule for references to, 66.

Plurals, of foreign words: cherub, memorandum, datum, donna, stratum, addendum, and rubai, 109.

P.M. (post meridiem):

- set in small capitals, 30;

- spacing of, 59.

Poetry:

- rules for quotation alignment, in setting, 17;

- titles of poems, to be quoted, 17;

- omission of apostrophe in poems when word is contracted for meter, 19;

- capitalization of first word of each line, 29;

- indention of, 55;

- italicizing of, 62.

Points of compass:

- capitalization of, 22, 23, 24;

- hyphenization, 49.

Political alliances, parties, divisions, capitalization of names of, 27, 28.

Political divisions, capitalization of, 28.

Possessive case, how designated, 19.

Possessives of proper nouns ending in s, how formed, 36.

“Post,” compounds with, 50.

Postal cards, use of, 125.

Postal regulations, 129–141.

Pounds (£), no space between symbol and preceding figures, 60.

“Pre-,” compounds with, 47–48.

Preface, use of italic in, 62.

Prefixes, “co-,” “pre-,” and “re-,” hyphenization of, 47–48.

Prepositions, capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26.

“President,”

- capitalization of, 25;

- when spelled in full, 68.

“Pretty,” correct use of, 109.

“Professor,” when spelled in full, 68.

Pronouns:

- used with noun for emphasis, comma omitted, 8;

- referring to Deity, capitalization of, 21.

Pronunciation, correct, influence of, in division of words, 52–54.

Proper names:

- capitalization, of, 22–24;

- abbreviation of, 66;

- derivatives from, familiarly used, not capitalized, 24.

Proper nouns: formation of possessive, 36.

“Propose,” distinguished from purpose, 109.

Prox., not used, 65.

Psalms:

- capitalization of titles of, 21;

- capitalization of, 22.

“Pseudo,” compounds with, 51.

Publications:

- use of colon in titles of literary references, 11;

- use of italics for, 62.

Publishers: use of colon separating city of publication and name of, in literary references, 11.

Punctuation:

- origin and purpose of, 3;
- rules for, 3–19;
- of headings of letters, 115;
- “open” and “close,” 3–4.

Punctuation marks:

- list of, 2;

- after italics to be italic, 64.

Q, inseparable from u, 53.

“Quarter,” compounds with, 47.

“Quasi,” compounds with, 48.

Queries, when bracketed, 18.

Question-mark. See Interrogation-point.

“Quite,” correct use of, 109.

Quotation-marks:

- use of, 16–17;
- double and single, 16–17;
- in poetry, 16;
- in ellipses, 17;
- repetition in paragraph beginnings, 17;
- in titles of poems, books, etc., 17;
- serial titles, 17;
- names of ships, 17;
- titles of works of art, 17;

- words and phrases accompanied by definitions and specially emphasized, or intended to possess unusual, technical, or ironical meanings, 17;

- use of colon with, 10;
- substitution of dash for, 14;
- use of comma with, 7;
- use of colon and dash before, 14;
- use of exclamation-point with, 15;
- capitalization of first word in, 29;
- following colon, 30;
- use of hair-space inside, 59.

Quotations: indention of, 55.

Races, capitalization of names of, 27.

“Railroad,” to be spelled out, 66.

“Raise,” never used as noun, 109.

“Rarely ever,” vulgarism for rarely, 109.

Rates, postal, 129–132.

“Re-,” compounds with, 47–48.

-re, French ending not used, 36.

Réaumur. See Thermometers.

“Reference,” used with with not in, 109.

References,

- capitalization of, nouns, 28;
- literary references, 28;
- use of colon in scriptural, 11;

- italics used in words, phrases, and abbreviations of literary and legal, 64.

“Regard.” See under Reference.

Regiments, capitalization of names of, 29.

Regions, or parts of the world, proper capitalization of, 22–23.

Registered mail, domestic and foreign, regulations for, 138.

“Relative,” use of the word, 99.

Relative clauses, use of comma with, 6.

Religious terms, capitalization of, 20–22, 26.

Residence, use of comma before “of” in connection with, 7.

Resolutions:

- word “Resolved” in, italicized, 64;

- word “Whereas,” 26.

“Resolved,” in resolutions,

- word following, to be capitalized, 26;

- italicization of, 64.

Respect, capitalization of titles of, 25.

“Respect.” See under Reference.

“Reverend,” always preceded by the, 110.

Reverse indention, 55.

“Revolutionary,” capitalization of, 22.

Roman:

- used in medical terms, 64;

- in certain words and phrases, literary and legal, 64.

Roman numerals:

- use of period after, 12.

- See Numerals.

“Rubaiyat,” plural of rubai, 109.

Running-heads, period not used following, 12.

Salutatory phrase:

- of letters, business, formal and informal, 116–118;

- use of comma, 7.

- See Phrase.

“Same,” not used as pronoun, 110.

“Same as,” distinguished from just as, 110.

Sarcasm, indicated by use of exclamation-point, 15.

“Scarcely.” See under Hardly.

“School,” compounds with, 51.

Scientific terms,

- capitalization of, 23;

- italicizing of, 64.

Scriptural terms, abbreviations of, 90.

Scripture, punctuation of:

- comma, 9;
- colon, 11;
- dash, 13;
- spacing of, references, 60.

Seasons, capitalization of, 23.

“Seldom ever.” See under Rarely ever.

“Self,” compounds with, 47.

“Semi,” compounds with, 48, 50.

Semicolon:

- defined, 8, 9;

- compared with comma, 9;

- placing of, in connection with quotation-marks, 9;

- rules for use of, 9;

- dividing compound sentences, 9;

- separating passages in Scripture references containing chapters, 9;

- use of hair-space preceding, 59.

“Sensible of,” distinguished from sensitive to, 110.

Sentences:

- first word of, capitalized, 29;

- first word after colon capitalized in independent, 29;

- connection of, in paragraph, 58.

Serial titles, to be quoted, 17.

“Set,” distinguished from sit, 110.

“Sewage,” correct use of, 110.

“Shall,” correct use of, 110.

“She.” See under Her.

Shillings and pence, abbreviations, s. and d., italics, 64.

Ships:

- names of, quoted, 17;
- names of, italicized, 62;
- time and watch on board, 161.

“Should,” correct use of, 111.

“Show,” correct use of, 111.

“Show up,” vulgarism for expose, 111.

Side-heads:

- capitalization of, 29;

- italicizing of, 62.

Signatures,

- omission of period after, 12;
- italicizing of, 62;
- general rules for, 122.

“Since,” correct use of, 111.

-sion and -tion, spelling of words terminating in, 39–40.

“Sister,” compounds with, 47.

“Size up,” vulgarism for estimate, 111.

Small capitals:

- how indicated in MS., 30;

- rules for, 30.

“So,” correct use of, 111.

Social organizations, capitalization of, 25.

Solar system, capitalization of popular names of, 23.

“Some,” correct use of, 111.

“Some one,” not a compound word, 51

“Some place,” written somewhere, 111.

“Sort.” See under Kind.

“Sort of,” correct use of, 111.

Sovereigns, abbreviation of names of, 69.

Spaces, examples of, 61.

Spacing:

- rules for, 59–61;

- uniformity of, 59;

- hair-spaces in connection with punctuation marks, 59;

- of abbreviated titles, 25, 59–60;
- of Scripture references, 60;
- of A.M., P.M., etc., 59;
- symbols and figures, 60;
- at end of paragraph, 60;
- in regard to turn-overs, 60;

- kerned letters, f and j require hair-spaces, 60;

- wide spacing, 60;
- examples, dashes and spaces, 60–61;
- of abbreviations of railroads, 66.

Special delivery, mail system, 139.

Species, scientific names of:

- use of capitals, 23;

- italicizing of, 64.

Spelling:

- rules for, 31–34;
- difficulties and choice of usages, 31;
- of decades, ages, centuries, dynasties, 32;

- of numbers of military bodies, streets, sessions of Congress, 32;

- of numbers, 31–32;
- of time of day, 32–33;
- use of diphthongs, 33;

- rules of orthography, 33–36, see Orthography;

- lists of words, — accented words, 37;
- participles, 37;
- variable endings, -ize, 37–38;
- ending in -ise, 38;
- ending in -ible and -able, 39;
- ending in -sion and -tion, 39–40;

- pronounced alike, but varying in meaning according to spelling, 40–44.

“Splendid,” correct use of, 111.

Square measure, table of, 150.

Squares, capitalization of names of, 23.

Standard time:

- meaning and explanation of, 142–144;

- table of, 144.

Stars, names of, italicized, 64.

“Start,” distinguished from begin, 111.

“State,” capitalization of, 24–25.

States:

- spacing of abbreviations of, 60–61;

- list of abbreviations of, 77–81.

Statistics, treatment of numbers in, 32.

“Stop,” distinguished from stay, 111.

“Strata,” plural of stratum, 109.

Streets:

- capitalization of names of, 23;

- numbers of, spelled out, 32.

“Sub,” compounds with, 50.

Subdivisions: in literary references, not capitalized, 28.

Subheads,

- omission of period after, 12;

- italicizing of, 62.

Subject-matter: separation of, by dash, from its authority, 13.

“Sulpho,” compounds with, 51

“Super,” compounds with, 50.

“Supra,”

- compounds with, 48;

- italicized, 64.

Surveyors’ measure, table of, 151.

s.v., italicized, 64.

Symbols:

- monetary, 90–91;
- mathematical, 91–92;
- medical, 93;
- spacing of monetary, 60.

Tables: box-heads in, omission of period, 12.

“Take,” correct use of, 111.

“Take stock in,” slang expression, 112.

Technical:

- use of figures in, matter, 32;

- words or phrases, use of quotation-marks for, 17.

Tense, common errors of, 112.

Text of letters: business, formal, and informal, 118–120.

“That.” See under Which.

“The,” not part of title of magazines and papers, 30.

“Them,” distinguished from they, 112.

“Thermo,” compounds with, 51.

Thermometers, comparative table: Réaumur, Centigrade, Fahrenheit, 148.

“They.” See under Them.

“This,” not used as adverb, 112.

Thoroughfares: capitalization of names of, 23; numbers of, spelled out, 32.

“Through,” distinguished from finished, 112.

Timber and wood, measures of, 157.

Time:

- use of colon between hours and minutes, 11;
- of day, when spelled out, 32;
- standard, explanation of, 142–144;
- on board ship, 161.

Time measure, table of, 151.

-tion and -sion. See -sion.

Title-pages, capitalization of certain words, 30.

Titles:

- capitalization of, 24–26;

- of poems, series, and works of art, to be quoted, 17;

- of parables (biblical), capitalization of, 20;

- of psalms, capitalization of, 20;
- use of colon in literary references, 10–11;
- capitalization of compounded, 22;
- use of comma separating, from names, 6;

- of honor, nobility, and respect, capitalization of, 25;

- civil and military, capitalization of, 25;
- foreign, capitalization of, 25–26;
- of books or essays, capitalization of, 26;

- of treaties, laws, and acts, capitalization of, 27;

- definite article not treated as part of, in newspapers or magazines, 30;

- “ex,” “vice,” “general,” “elect,” etc., use of hyphen in connecting, 47;

- italicizing of books, newspapers, and periodicals, 62;

- abbreviations of, with lists, 68–75;
- capitalize when used alone 68–69;
- of sovereigns, 69.

“To,” compounds with, 50.

“Too,” correct use of, 112.

“Treat,” followed by of, 112.

Treaties, capitalization of names of, 27.

“Tree,” compounds with, 49.

“Tri-,” compounds with, 50.

Tribes, capitalization of names of, 27.

Troy ounce, uses of the, 154–155.

Troy weight, table of, 150.

“Try,” followed by to, 112.

Two-letter syllables, avoid division of, 53.

“Ugly,” correct use of, 112.

Ult., not used, 65.

“Ultra,” compounds with, 48.

“Un-” (negative prefix), compounds with, 50.

“Under,” compounds with, 50.

“United States,” when abbreviated, 66.

Units of measure, not capitalized, 29–30.

Unity of paragraphs, 57.

“University,” capitalization of, 27.

Unknown quantities: algebraic, geometric, etc., italicized, 64.

v. (versus), set in roman, 64.

“Van,” capitalization of, 25–26.

Verbal nouns, ending in -ing, distinguished from participles, 106.

Verbs, not to be omitted from sentence, 112.

Versions of Bible, capitalization of, 20.

“Very,” correct use of, 112.

“Vice,” compounds with, 46.

Vide, italicized, 64.

“Visitor,” distinguished from visitant, 113.

“viz.,” set in roman, 64.

“Vocation,” distinguished from avocation, 113.

Vocative words,

- comma separating, 7;

- “O” as distinguished from exclamatory “oh,” 15.

Volt. See Electrical measures.

“Von,” capitalization of, 25–26.

Vowels, rules for division of words based upon, 52–53.

“Want,” correct use of, 113.

Watch on board ship, the, 161.

Watt. See Electrical measures.

“Way,” not to be used for away, 113.

Week, days of:

- capitalization of, 23;

- abbreviation of, 65–66.

Weights:

- metric system, table 149;
- apothecaries’, 150;
- avoirdupois, 150;
- British, 153;
- the Troy ounce, 155;
- Indian, 159;
- foreign, 160;

- and measures, tables and rules for, 149–160.

“What,” distinguished from that, 113.

“Whereas,” in resolutions, use of capital, 26.

“Which,” correct use of, 113.

“Who,” correct use of, 113.

“Will.” See under Shall.

“Woman,”

- compounds with, 49;

- correct use of, See Gentleman.

“Womanly,” distinguished from womanish, 113.

Words:

- accompanied by definition, to be quoted, 17;

- of unusual, technical, or ironical meanings, to be quoted, 17;

- specially desired to attract attention, to be quoted, 17;

- contraction of, omission indicated by apostrophe, 19;

- derived from proper names, capitalization of, 24;

- with special meaning, capitalization of, 29;

- accented, 37;

- pronounced alike, but varying in meaning, according to spelling, list of 40–44;

- foreign, italicizing of, 62–63.

“World,” compounds with, 47.

“Would.” See under Should.

Wrapping, of mail matter, 132.

X, do not divide on, 53.

Yard measures, table of, 158.

Years, numbers preceding, spelled out, 32.

Zoölogical terms:

- capitalization of, 23;

- italicizing of, 64.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE.

The transcriber produced the cover image and hereby assigns it to the public domain.

Original spelling and grammar have been generally retained, with some exceptions noted below.

Original printed page numbers are shown in the right like this: {52}.

Footnotes have been relabeled 1–32.

Large curly brackets ‘}’ used as graphic devices to combine information over two or more lines of text have been eliminated, restructuring as necessary to retain the original meaning.

There are many uncommon unicode characters in this book; specialized fonts may be necessary to view them all in the simple text edition. Images of many of them are substituted in the html, epub & mobi editions. Examples―

- On page 91, the mathematical sign for “The difference between” is shown in the original book as a glyph like a tilde, reproduced here in the html/epub/mobi editions as an image from the printed book. The text edition of this transcription uses ‘≏’ (U+224F DIFFERENCE BETWEEN).

- On page 92, the glyph for “Factorial sign” is shown in the original book as a right angle, roughly L shaped, with a “5” nestled into the angle (the printed example means specifically “factorial of 5”). This form is evidently obsolete, and the transcriber failed to find a Unicode method of representation. So in the text edition the code “[∟5]” is substituted, while in the html/epub/mobi editions, an image is used.

- In the phrase on page 95 "one of those figures, CI, CD, ∞, ", the original book showed an uncial m, reproduced here in the html/epub/mobi editions as an image. The simple text edition of this transcription substitutes ‘ⅿ’ (U+217F, SMALL ROMAN NUMERAL ONE THOUSAND) instead. This glyph recurs on page 98.

To Table of Contents

Page 60. The second paragraph was printed so as to look approximately like the following: “[ . . . ] II Sam. 1 : 2–6; 2 : 8–12.”, namely, with equal space on either side of the colon in the first instance and unequal spaces in the second instance. This transcription makes it equal spaces, U+200A (hair space).

Pages 65–92. The chapter titled ABBREVIATIONS contains several sections: in order, “DATES”, “PROPER NAMES”, “TITLES”, “6. COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS”, “7. GEOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS”, &c. These are given html heading level code “<h3>” in this transcription. Unfortunately, there were no numbered headings corresponding to numbers 1–5 in the original book, so these are missing from this transcription as well. (There were and remain paragraphs numbered 1–5, with no headings, but those all belong to the section “TITLES”)

Page 149. In the original table “Weights and Measures”, the first and fifth columns are not directly related to the other three, and arguably do not belong in the table. Therefore, these columns have been stripped out of the table and recast as a nested list ahead of the table.

Page 152. The phrase “1 lite” was changed to “1 liter”.

Page 168, Index entry “Compounds, with:”; a pointer to page 50 was added for subentry ‘ “in” ’.

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Table of Contents

E-text prepared by MWS, RichardW, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org)

THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK
CONTENTS
PUNCTUATION MARKS, ACCENTS, ETC.

PUNCTUATION

- THE COMMA

- The comma is required:

- The comma is not required:

- THE SEMICOLON

- Use the semicolon:

- THE COLON

- Use the colon:

- THE PERIOD

- Use the period:

- Do not use the period:

- THE DASH

- Use the dash:

- THE EXCLAMATION

- The exclamation-point is required:

- THE INTERROGATION

- QUOTATION-MARKS

- Quote:

- PARENTHESES

- BRACKETS

- Use brackets:

- THE APOSTROPHE

- THE HYPHEN

CAPITALIZATION

- RELIGIOUS TERMS

- Capitalize:

- Do not capitalize:

- PROPER NAMES

- Capitalize:

- Do not capitalize:

- TITLES

- Capitalize:

- Do not capitalize:

- INSTITUTIONAL TERMS

- Capitalize:

- Do not capitalize:

- REFERENCES

- Capitalize:

- Do not capitalize:

- ORDINALS

- Capitalize:

- IN GENERAL

- Capitalize:

- Do not capitalize:

- SMALL CAPITALS

SPELLING

- NUMBERS
- DIPHTHONGS
- SIMPLE RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY
- ACCENTED WORDS
- PARTICIPLES
- VARIABLE ENDINGS

COMPOUND WORDS

- Use the hyphen:

- Do not use the hyphen:

DIVISION OF WORDS

INDENTION AND PARAGRAPHING

- PARAGRAPHING

SPACING

ITALIC

- Italic is used:

ABBREVIATIONS

- DATES
- PROPER NAMES
- TITLES
- 6. COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS
- 7. GEOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS
- 8. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS
- 9. SCRIPTURAL ABBREVIATIONS
- 10. MONETARY SIGNS
- 11. MATHEMATICAL SIGNS
- 12. MEDICAL SIGNS

NUMERALS

- NUMERAL LETTERS

CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION

LETTER WRITING

- THE HEADING
- THE ADDRESS
- THE SALUTATION
- THE TEXT OF THE LETTER
- THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE
- THE SIGNATURE
- THE ENVELOPE
- POSTAL CARDS
- IN GENERAL

- EXAMPLES OF CORRECT LETTER WRITING

- 1. BUSINESS LETTER I
- 2. BUSINESS LETTER II (reverse indention)
- 3. INFORMAL OR FRIENDLY LETTER
- 4. FORMAL SOCIAL NOTES
- 5. FORMAL NOTE TO TRADESMAN

POSTAL REGULATIONS

- CLASSES OF MAIL
- WRAPPING OF MAIL MATTER
- FORWARDING MAIL MATTER
- WHAT CANNOT BE MAILED
- CONCEALED MATTER
- DOMESTIC RATES

- FOREIGN RATES

- Exceptions for Cuba, Mexico, Canada, and Republic of Panama

- FOREIGN PARCELS POST

- MONEY ORDER FEES

- Fees for International Money Orders

- REGISTERED MAIL

- Domestic

- Foreign

- SPECIAL DELIVERY SYSTEM

- POSTAL DISTANCES AND TIME FROM NEW YORK CITY

APPENDIX

- STANDARD TIME
- FOREIGN COINS
- COMPARATIVE THERMOMETERS

- WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

- THE METRIC SYSTEM
- LINEAR MEASURE
- SQUARE MEASURE
- DRY MEASURE
- LIQUID MEASURE
- APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT
- AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
- TROY WEIGHT
- PAPER MEASURE
- TIME MEASURE
- CIRCULAR MEASURE
- CLOTH MEASURE
- MARINERS’ MEASURE
- MISCELLANEOUS
- SURVEYORS’ MEASURE
- CUBIC MEASURE
- METRIC EQUIVALENTS
- British Weights and Measures
- ELECTRICAL MEASURES
- MEASURES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES

- TIME AND WATCH ON BOARD SHIP

- PARCEL POST — TABLE OF RATES

INDEX

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE