COURSES OF STUDY IN LIBRARY SCIENCE

BEING THE

ASSISTANTS’ GUIDE TO LIBRARIANSHIP.

BY

REGINALD G. WILLIAMS, F.L.A.,

Deputy Librarian, Bolton Public Libraries.

Author of “The Great Civil War: a Graded Course
of Reading;” “Writers of the Nineteenth Century;”
“The French Revolution, 1789-1795; a Graded
Course of Reading;” “A Manual of Book
Selection for the Librarian and
Book-Lover,” Etc., Joint
Author, “The Librarians’
Guide,” Etc.

SECOND REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION.

COPYRIGHT.

THE CENTRAL PRESS
(Hopkins & Sons)
BOLTON

1926.

[Pg ix]

THESE courses of study have been compiled mainly for the use of Library Assistants all over the world who wish to make themselves more efficient in the technical side of their profession, and to aid them in securing the professional certificates awarded by the examining bodies for proficiency in Library Science. They make no pretence to satisfy the needs of the specialist in any of the selected subjects, but the author assures students that each course covers sufficient ground to enable them to pass the examinations if they will work diligently and well throughout the course.

The first edition of this work was out of print within eighteen months of publication. This is sufficient testimony that the work has been well received, and has proved very popular with the student members of the profession. This edition has been completely revised and brought up to date.

The amount of time to be devoted to each lesson will depend on the individual, but it is essential that the prescribed reading lists should be read carefully before attempting any answers. These lists could easily be amplified, but the difficulty has been to keep them within reasonable length and at the same time representative. A large number of American journals are included at the special request of American and Colonial students.

Correspondence Tuition
for
LIBRARY ASSOCIATION
EXAMINATIONS
by Experienced Librarians.

Fees moderate.

The Courses will cover the whole of the syllabus of the Examination. Studies can be started at any time and spread over the period until the date of the examination.

A special discount is allowed to members of N.A.L.G.O. Fees can be paid by instalments if desired—a small extra percentage is charged for this method of payment.

---

For further particulars and enrolment form send stamped addressed envelope to the General Secretary, N.C.I., Caxton Hall, Westminster, S.W.1.

[Pg xi]

Most students will find the practice of taking notes, and representing in their own words a summary of what has been read, to be most helpful. These notes should be compared with the text to ensure that essential points have not been missed. The questions and tests should be answered without the aid of text books or notes.

I gladly avail myself of the opportunity to express my gratitude to my wife for her help and valuable suggestions, my indebtedness to Mr. James Cranshaw, for his contribution on English Literary History; to the large number of Librarians and Assistants who have written appreciative letters to me, and to Mr. H. Hamer, F.L.A., for looking over the manuscript and proof, but responsibility for any mistakes is mine.

REGINALD G. WILLIAMS.

Astley Bridge,
Bolton.
23rd January, 1926.

American Library Association—Manual of library economy. Preprints Nos. 1-32. A.L.A., also Grafton & Co., 1s. 6d. each.

Brown (J. D.)—Manual of library economy, revised edition, 1907. O.P.

Cannons (H. G. T.)—Bibliography of library economy, 1876-1909. Russell & Co., 1910. O.P.

Encyclopædia Britannica; or, any other good encyclopædia. Articles on Books, Libraries, Printing, etc.

Friedel (J. H.)—Training for librarianship: library work as a career. Lippincott’s Training Series. Lippincott: Philadelphia, 1921. 7s. 6d.

Library Association—Syllabus of information on facilities for training in librarianship and the professional examinations. Various issues from 1894, 1904, 1907 and then periodically. Library Association. 2s. 6d.

[Pg 2]

PERIODICALS.

Librarian and Book World, 1910 to date. Monthly. Gravesend.

The Library, 1889-1919 (continued as “The Transactions of the Bibliographical Society: The Library”). Quarterly. London.

Library Assistant, 1898 to date. Monthly. London.

Library Association Record, 1899 to date. Quarterly. London.

Library Journal, 1876 to date. Monthly. New York.

Library World, 1898 to date. Monthly. London.

Ontario Library Review, 1916 to date. Quarterly. Toronto.

Public Libraries, 1896 to date. Monthly. Chicago.

Note: Cannons’s “Bibliography of library economy” indexes the above periodicals from 1876-1909.

Abbreviations.

This course covers the collation and description of books which includes the irregularities found in the make-up of early books. The collation by quires, by the aid of water-marks, signatures, catchwords, blank pages, etc. Parts of a modern book. Difficulties in ascertaining when books are perfect. What constitutes a new issue, a new edition, a reprint. Forms of bibliographical descriptions and the essentials of standard descriptions of various classes of books. Then we pass on to the requisites of standard book production. Typography. Presswork. Inks. The constituents and essentials of good book paper. Objects of book illustration, including the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods in use. Library bookbinding. Materials and methods in use, and finally the compilation of bibliographies in which the student is expected to know the principles of arrangement of Author, Subject and Classified bibliographies, and the practical methods of compiling various bibliographies.

Text Books Required.

Brown (J. D.)—Manual of practical bibliography. The English Library. Routledge, 1906. Also Grafton. 3s.

Brown (J. D.)—The small library. The English Library. Routledge, 1907. Also Grafton. 3s.

Davenport (Cyril)—The book: its history and development. Westminster Series. Constable, 1907. 6s.

Fay (L. E.) and Eaton (A. T.)—Instruction in the use of books and libraries. 2nd edition, revised. Faxon & Co.: Boston, 1919. Also Grafton. 22s. 6d.

Hitchcock (F. H.), editor.—The building of a book: a series of practical articles written by experts in the various departments of book making and distributing. T. W. Laurie. O.P.

Jacobi (C. T.)—Printing: a practical treatise on the art of typography as applied more particularly to the printing of books. 6th edition, reprinted. Bell & Sons, 1925. 10s. 6d.

[Pg 4]

Jacobi (C. T.)—Some notes on books and printing. 4th edition. Whittingham, 1912. 6s.

Library Association—Interim Report of the Book Production Committee. Library Association. 1s.

Mudge (I.G.)—Bibliography. (Preprint of Manual of library economy. Chapter 24). A.L.A. Pub. Board: Chicago, 1915, may be obtained also from Grafton & Co.

Note.—Other text books pertaining to specific subjects will be mentioned in the Lesson dealing with that subject.

Take particular note of the factors and notes to be found at the end of each Course.

Lesson 1.

Introduction. Theory. Utility. Bibliographical Terms.

This lesson is intended to make clear to the student the derivation and meaning of the words bibliography and bibliographer, in their original and present use. The aims of bibliography. What is the ideal in bibliographical work? The different kinds of bibliographies in print. The standards of bibliographical work. The value and uses of bibliography in the library profession. Bibliographical terms. An index of the Latin names of towns in which printing was established during the fifteenth century, with their vernacular equivalents will be found on pp. 43-50 of Peddie’s “Fifteenth-century books” and on pp. 163-172 of Brown’s “Manual of practical bibliography.”

Note.—Such subjects as the histories of printing, paper-making, bookbinding, authorship, etc., do not come within the province of modern practical bibliography.

Reading List.

Brown—Manual of practical bibliography. pp. 1-20; 157-162.

Brown—Practical bibliography. L. (New Series). Vol. 4, 1903, pp. 144-151. Reply by A. W. Pollard, pp. 151-162.

[Pg 5]

Campbell—The bibliography of the future. 1895.

Campbell—Theory of national and international bibliography. Library Bureau. 1896. 10s. 6d.

Duff—Early printed books. Books about Books. K. Paul. 1893, pp. 201-205.

Clarke—Some points in practical bibliography. L.A.R. Vol. 6. 1904, pp. 192-205.

Encyclopædia Britannica.—Articles Bibliography; Book.

Fay and Eaton—Instruction in the use of books and libraries. Chap. 10, pp. 125-134.

Feipel—Elements of bibliography. Chicago, 1916. Passim.

Ferguson—Some aspects of bibliography. Johnstone: Edinburgh, 1900, pp. 1-52 (Should be read after Mudge’s book).

Greg—What is bibliography? Trans. Bib. Soc. Vol. 12, 1911-13, pp. 39-53.

Guppy—Science of bibliography and what it embraces. L.A.R. Vol 2, 1900, pp. 171-175.

Horne—An introduction to the study of bibliography. 2 vols. Cadell and Davies, 1814. Early chapters.

Keogh—Practical bibliographies. A.L.A. Bulletin. Vol. 1, 1907, pp. 35-39.

Jacobi—Some notes on books and printing. pp. 83-96.

Moth—Technical terms used in bibliographies, and by the book and printing trades. Boston Book Co.: Boston, 1915. 10s.

Mudge—Bibliography. (Preprint of Manual of library economy, Chapter 24.) This is a splendid introduction to modern practical bibliography, bringing in the derivation, present meaning, kinds of bibliography, etc.

Murray—Bibliography: its scope and methods. Maclehose, 1917. pp. 1-20; 51-58.

Parsons—Introduction to elementary bibliography. London, 1913. Also in L. & B. W. Vol 3, 1912, pp. 43-47.

[Pg 6]

Peddie—The bases of bibliographical research. L.W. Vol. 25, 1922-23, pp. 329-331.

Spofford—A book for all readers. Putnam: New York, 1905. Chap. 27, pp. 459-500.

Questions.

1. What is bibliography? Compare the original meaning of the term with that of to-day.

2. There are certain standards by which the reference value of bibliographies is judged: What do these standards relate to?

3. Define the following terms:—bibliographer; codex; colophon; edition de luxe; format; grangerizing; index expurgatorius; incunabula; recto; signatures; octavo; cliché; bowdlerize.

4. Give an account of the value of bibliography to the library profession.

5. Printed bibliographies fall naturally into recognised classes. Name four of these classes.

6. Discuss the field of bibliographical work for local bibliographical societies.

Lesson 2.

Irregularities in the make up of books. Collation. Parts of a modern book. Bibliographical description.

The student should note carefully the various meanings of the word “collation,” especially in relation to bibliography as distinct from cataloguing. Why early printed books often resembled manuscripts. Early books had no title pages. Irregularities to be found in the make up of early printed books. Bibliographical information usually found in the colophon. Title pages appeared about 1480. For printers’ marks or devices, the student is advised to consult McKerrow’s “Printers’ and publishers’ devices in England and Scotland, 1485-1640”; Plomer’s “English printers’ ornaments,” or “Printers’ marks,” 1893, by W. Roberts. Note the importance of the value of date and place of publication. Why [Pg 7]early printed books were not paged. How they should be collated by the aid of watermarks, catchwords, signatures, etc. Numbered pages began about 1470. Parts of a modern book: half-title, title page, dedication, preface, table of contents, list of plates or illustrations, errata, text, notes, appendices, index, and printer’s colophon. Sometimes a frontispiece may be found between the half and full title page. Difficulties in ascertaining if a book is perfect. Note the difference between a new issue, a reprint, and a new edition. Why prefatory pages, or introductory matter are separately numbered in Roman numerals. Catchwords were introduced in 1469 as a guide to the binder. Signatures also used as a guide to the binder. How the sizes of books are determined by the number of folds into which certain sheets of paper are divided. It is very important for the student to understand the different forms of bibliographical description and to distinguish the early forms from that applied to present day work. For this reason the entries in the standard bibliographies should be noted and compared.

Reading List.

Aldis—The printed book. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1916, pp. 1-27.

Blades—On signatures in old books. L. Vol. 1, 1889, pp. 121-131.

Brown—Manual of practical bibliography. pp. 21-58; 87-97.

Clarke—The modern book. L.A. Vol. 7, 1910, pp. 266-270.

Coupland—Irregularities in the make-up of early printed books. L.W. Vol. 16, 1913-14, pp. 118-119.

Davenport—The book: its history and development. pp. 30-33; 64-76.

Duff—Early printed books. pp. 206-212.

Edmond—Suggestions for the description of books printed between 1501-1640. L.A.R. Vol. 3, 1901, pp. 133-142.

Encyclopædia Britannica. Articles Bibliography; Collation.

Fay and Eaton—Instruction in the use of books and libraries. Chap. 3, pp. 25-39.

[Pg 8]

Garnett—Some colophons of the early printers. L. Vol. 2, 1890, pp. 125-132.

Jacobi—Some notes on books and printing. Chap. 6. pp. 62-65.

McKerrow—Printers’ and publishers’ devices in England and Scotland. 1485-1640. (Illus. Monographs No. 16). Bibliographical Society, 1913.

McKerrow—Note on variations in certain copies of the “Return of Pasquil.” L. (New Series). Vol. 4, 1903, pp. 384-391.

McKerrow—Notes on bibliographical evidence. Trans. Bib. Soc. Vol. 12, 1911-13, pp. 237-306.

Madan—Degressive bibliographies. Trans. Bib. Soc. Vol. 9, 1906-08, pp. 53-65.

Madan—Method in bibliography. Trans. Bib. Soc. Vol 1, 1892-3, pp. 91-96.

Parsons—Introduction to elementary bibliography. Also in L. & B. W. Vol. 3, 1912, pp. 47-50.

Plomer—English printers’ ornaments. 1924. Grafton, £2 2s.

Pollard—Objects and methods of bibliographical collations and descriptions. L. (New Series). Vol. 8, 1907, pp. 209-217.

Pollard—An essay on colophons. 1905.

Pollard—Last words on the history of the title page, with notes on some colophons and 27 facsimiles of title pages. 1891.

Pollard and Greg—Some points in bibliographical descriptions. Trans. Bib. Soc. Vol. 9. 1906-08, pp. 31-52.

Powell—Publishers and publishing. L.A.R. Vol. 4, 1902, pp. 590-601.

Proctor—Notes on signatures. L. Vol. 3, 1891, pp. 177-180; 267-269.

Rawlings—The story of books. Hodder & Stoughton. Chap. 15, pp. 159-164.

[Pg 9]

Roberts—Printers’ marks. 1893.

Sharp—Practical bibliography. L.W. Vol. 13, 1910-11, pp. 298-302.

Questions.

1. The early printers were responsible for many inconsistencies and irregularities in the make-up of their books. Explain, giving examples.

2. Why are blank pages often found in the middle of the text in early printed books?

3. Sketch the relative positions of watermarks or wire-lines in books of different sizes, and state how a watermark may be used in book collation.

4. Make out an entry of a modern book (which may be imaginary) comprising every bibliographical detail necessary to describe it completely, and give reasons for the particular order adopted.

5. Give an account of the evolution of the title page.

Lesson 3.

Essentials of Good Book Production.

Printing. Typography. Presswork.

The essentials of good printing include a good, firm, clean and sharp impression with a really good black ink. The student must be able to recognise the difference between good and bad type. The two most important factors of modern book production are the selection of suitable type and the precise format of the page when the size of the volume is given. Note the various founts of type. Classes of type, sizes, and the point system, methods of composition, type-casting and type-setting machines, e.g., monotype, linotype, and others. Stereotype work. Methods of mounting plates for printing. Different kinds of stereotype and electrotype plates. Hand-press work. Kinds of presses used. The student should endeavour to examine Stanley Morison’s “Modern fine printing: an exhibit of printing issued in England, the United States of America, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Czecho-Slovakia, Holland and Sweden [Pg 10]during the twentieth century and with few exceptions since the outbreak of the war.” Benn, 1925. £13 2s. 6d. and his “Four centuries of fine printing: upwards of six hundred examples of the work of presses established during the years 1500-1914.” Benn, 1924. £11 0s. 6d. These two books are beautiful examples of fine printing, and will probably be found in most of our large Public Libraries.

Reading List.

Aldis—The printed book. Chaps. 6 and 7, pp. 57-91.

British Museum Guide to the exhibition of printed books.

Davenport—The book: its history and development. Chap. 4, pp. 85-101.

Encyclopædia Britannica—Articles Typography, Printing.

Hitchcock, editor.—The building of a book. pp. 25-76; 99-138.

Hodges—The printing press: its place in librarianship. L.A. Vol. 17, 1924, pp. 68-71; 97-102.

Jacobi—Printing. Passim, with special attention devoted to Chaps. 1, 16 and 21.

Jacobi—Some notes on books and printing. Chap. 3, pp. 27-39.

Legros and Grant—Typographical printing surfaces: the technology and mechanism of their production. Longmans Green, 1916. 42s. Passim.

Meynell—Typography. The written word and the printed word. Some tests for types. Concerning printers’ flowers. The pioneer work of the Pelican Press. The points of a well-made book. A glossary of printers’ terms. Type specimens. A display of borders and initials. The Pelican Press, 1923. 7s 6d. Passim.

Morison—On type faces: examples of the use of type for the printing of books. The Medici Society, 1923. 30s. Passim.

Plomer—The history of printing, 1476-1898. The English Bookman’s Library. K. Paul, 1900. Passim.

[Pg 11]

Report of the Committee appointed to select the best faces of type and modes of display for Government printing, 1922. H.M.S.O. 4s. also Note on the legibility of printed matter, prepared by M. A. Legros. 1922. H.M.S.O. 1s. 6d.

Sharp—Practical bibliography. L.W. Vol. 13, 1910-11, pp. 327-330.

Times Printing Number (The)—Reprinted from the 40,000 issue of The Times, Tuesday, September 10th, 1912. Times Office, 1913. 6s. Articles Stereotyping; Composition; Typography.

Questions.

1. Name three methods of moulding plates for printing purposes.

2. Give six essential features of good type.

3. What is the best style of type face for book work? State your reasons for your preference.

4. Give an account of the use of the matrix in type-founding.

5. Define the following terms:—stereotyping; ligature; sans serif; forme; quoins; shorts; point system; italics; large paper; black letter.

Lesson 4.

Paper.

The student should know how to distinguish the difference between papyrus, parchment, vellum and paper. The article “paper” in the Encyclopædia Britannica will be quite sufficient for the history of its use and introduction into Europe. English paper-making dates from the fifteenth century. The manufacture of paper must be closely followed, first, the materials, then, their reduction to the pulp, the conversion of the pulp into paper, and finally the finishing. How to tell the difference between hand-made and machine made paper, by wire marks, deckle edge, colour, tear and rougher side. [Pg 12]The effect of the “dandy roll” on “wove” and “laid” paper. Chain lines. Essentials of first class manufacture. The merits and defects of different kinds of paper. Antique, India, art, imitation art, Japanese vellum, super-calendar, etc.

Reading List.

Blades—Paper and paper marks. L. Vol. 1, 1889, pp. 217-223.

Chivers—Paper and binding of lending library books. L.J. Vol. 34, 1909, pp. 350-354.

Chivers—The paper of lending library books, with some remarks on their bindings. Illus. Chivers, 1910. Passim.

Coutts and Stephen—Library bookbinding. Grafton, 1911. 7s. 6d. Chaps. 5 and 6, pp. 62-82.

Davenport—The book: its history and development. Chap. 3, pp. 62-84.

Encyclopædia Britannica—Article Paper.

Hitchcock, editor.—The building of a book. pp. 89-98.

Jenkins—Paper making in England (1495-1714). L.A.R. Vol. 2, 1900, pp. 479-488; 577-588. Vol. 3, 1901, pp. 239-251.

Jacobi—Printing. Chap. 32, pp. 328-339, and samples of paper found at the end of the book.

Jacobi—Some notes on books and printing. Chap. 5, pp. 56-61 and samples of paper found at the end of the book.

Library Association Book Production Committee—Interim Report, 1913.

Madan—Books in manuscript, their study and use. K. Paul, 1893. 6s. pp. 6-12.

Maddox—Paper: its history, sources and manufacture. Pitman, 1916. Passim.

Sindall—Manufacture of paper. Westminster Series. Constable, 1908. Passim.

[Pg 13]

Sindall—Physical qualities of paper. L.A.R. Vol. 10. 1908, pp. 24-35; 60-62.

Sindall—Manufacture of wood pulp for paper making. L.A.R. Vol. 10, 1908, pp. 336-341.

Times Printing Number (The)—Articles Hand-made paper; Modern printing papers; Wood pulp.

Williams—In Manual of book selection, Appendix 2. Notes on paper making, pp. 93-103.

Questions.

1. Give the essential and outstanding requirements of a modern book paper.

2. The strength of a paper is determined by the constitution and structure of the fibrous elements of which it is composed. Explain.

3. What substances are now principally used in paper-making? State the qualities of the different papers.

4. What should be the requirements in the paper for a book of reference of over 1,000 pages?

5. What is a featherweight paper?

Lesson 5.

Ink.

The process of making printing ink consists of grinding a pigment, black, white, or coloured, into a suitable varnish. Pigment is responsible for making the impression visible. Varnish responsible for the holding together of the pigment during its distribution on the press to the type. The different kinds of ink. The ingredients of good printing inks. Its stages of manufacture. Ink used for book work must be of the best quality. Hand-press requires different kind of ink to that used in machine presses. “Jobbing ink.” “Cut ink.”

Reading List.

Andes—Oil colours and printers’ inks. Scott Greenwood, 1918. Passim.

Encylopædia Britannica—Article Ink.

[Pg 14]

Hitchcock, editor—The building of a book. pp. 139-143.

Jacobi—Printing. Chap. 19, pp. 214-217.

Mitchell—Ink. Pitman. Passim.

Seymour—Modern printing inks: a practical handbook for printing-ink manufacturers. Scott Greenwood, 1910. Passim.

Questions.

1. Define the difference between printing inks and writing inks.

2. Give the ingredients of a good printing ink to be used for book work.

3. Explain the following terms:—coloured inks; cut ink; copying inks; sympathetic inks; printers’ inks.

4. How is the impression conditioned by the flow of the ink?

Lesson 6.

Book Illustration.

The illustration of books began before the invention of printing, and the purpose of illustration is to carry the spirit of action rather than to serve as a basis for deft expression of technical skill. Illustrations are pictorial matter (plates, diagrams, etc.) generally used for the purpose of elucidating the text, the object being to enable the reader to obtain a better grasp and a more realistic view of the subject which the author would seek to present whether in connection with science, travel, or fiction. Illustrations make clearer to the imagination their stories and their songs by reflecting manners of life, interests and pursuits in a way that brightens what would otherwise often be commonplace.

The student will be expected to know the purpose of book illustration. The merits and defects of different methods of illustrations now in use. The hand processes include;—in relief, intaglio, flat surface. Photographic processes:—in relief, intaglio, and flat surface. The colour processes. The [Pg 15]need for really good blocks. Students are recommended to purchase the booklet issued by the British Museum at 6d. and entitled “A guide to the processes and schools of engraving.” 2nd edition, 1923.

Reading List.

Aldis—The printed book. Chap. 8, pp. 92-113.

Coupland—Methods of book illustration. L.W. Vol. 15, 1912-13, pp. 356-362.

Davenport—The book: its history and development. Chap. 5, pp. 102-140.

Crane—Of the decorative illustrations of books. 2nd edition. Bell, 1901. 6s. Passim.

Encyclopædia Britannica—Articles Illustration; Process and under the various methods.

Fay and Eaton—The use of books and libraries. Chap. 11, pp. 156-162.

Hitchcock, editor—The building of a book. pp. 154-215.

Hardie—English coloured books. Connoisseurs’ Library. Methuen, 1906. 25s. Passim.

Jacobi—Printing. Chaps. 22-24. pp. 236-253.

Jacobi—Some notes on books and printing. Chap. 4, pp. 40-55.

Jennings—Early wood-cut initials. Methuen, 1908. 21s. Passim.

Pennell—Modern illustration. Ex Libris Series. Bell & Sons, 1895. 10s. 6d. Passim.

Pennell—The illustration of books. T. F. Unwin, 1896. 3s. 6d. Passim.

Pollard—Early illustrated books. Books about Books. K. Paul, 1893. Passim.

Sharp—Practical bibliography. L.W. Vol 13, 1910-11, pp. 333-336.

Sketchley—English book illustration of to-day. K. Paul, 1903. 10s. 6d. Passim.

[Pg 16]

Questions.

1. Define the objects of book illustration.

2. What in your opinion is the best method of book illustration?

3. Name the different methods of book illustration in use at the present day, and draw special attention to their respective merits and defects.

4. What has been the effect upon book-papers of the introduction of the “half-tone” method of illustration?

5. Give a brief account of the technical development of modern book illustration.

Lesson 7.

Bookbinding.

It is not necessary for the student to devote much time to the historical side of the subject if he intends taking the Library Association Examination. It is to the practical side that most attention must be given. It is essential to possess an elementary knowledge of binding, with special attention given to library bookbinding. The processes, hand and machine bookbinding and their relation to library bookbinding must be noticed. The principal qualities for a library binding are: flexibility, strength and durability, solidity, good materials, neatness, lightness, cheapness, and suitability of style. These qualities should be carefully followed, and the materials must be considered. How the quality of paper affects the binding. The pro and con of home binderies, and finally tenders and specifications.

Reading List.

Aldis—The printed book. Chap. 9, pp. 114-135.

American Library Association—Binding for small libraries: suggestions prepared by the A.L.A. Committee on Bookbinding. 1915. 25c.

Bailey—Library bookbinding. H. W. Wilson Co.: New York. 1916. Passim.

[Pg 17]

Bliss—Better bookbinding for libraries. L.J. Vol. 30, 1905, pp. 849-857. Also in P.L. Vol. 11, 1906, pp. 294-9.

Chivers—Relative value of leathers and other binding materials. Illus. Chivers, 1911. Passim. Also in L.A.R. Vol. 13, 1911, pp. 415-430.

Cochrane—Costing data in bookbinding. L.W. Vol. 25, 1922-23, pp. 345-347.

Cockerell—Bookbinding, and the care of books. 4th edition. Pitman, 1923. 10s. 6d. First published 1901. Passim.

Coutts and Stephen—Manual of library bookbinding. Passim. The best book on the subject for the library assistant.

Dana—Lettering the backs of books when rebound for libraries. P.L. Vol. 12, 1907, pp. 306-307.

Dana—Notes on bookbinding for libraries. Latest edition. Passim.

Davenport—The book: its history and development. Chaps. 2, 7, 8 and 9, pp. 26-61, 169-180, 181-204, 205-243.

Encyclopædia Britannica—Article Bookbinding.

Hitchcock, editor—The building of a book. pp. 216-256.

Jacobi—Some notes on books and printing. Chap. 7, pp. 66-69.

Library Association—Interim report on book production.

Library Association. Sound Leather Committee.—Leather for libraries, by E. W. Hulme and others. Library Supply Co., 1905. Passim.

Society of Arts.—Report of the Committee on leather for bookbinding. G. Bell & Sons, 1905. First published 1901. Passim.

Spofford—A book for all readers. Chap. 3, pp. 50-87.

Stephen—Edition binding. L.A. Vol. 6, 1904, pp. 326-330.

[Pg 18]

Stephen—Machine book sewing, with remarks on publishers’ binding. Library Association, 1908. 6d. Also in L.A.R. Vol. 10, 1908; pp. 261-280.

Stephen—Notes on materials for library bookbinding. L.A. Vol. 5, 1905-07, pp. 143-146; 162-164.

Stephen—Publishers’ bindings. L.A.R. Vol. 12, 1910. pp. 9-13.

Stephen—Commercial bookbinding. Stonehill. 7s. 6d. Passim.

Times Printing Number—Article Bookbinding.

Questions.

1. Discuss the values and uses of the following binding materials:—pigskin, rexine, cloth, buckram, morocco, calf.

2. Discuss the merits or demerits of three leathers suitable for library bookbinding. State which you consider the best.

3. Can you name any library which has a binding establishment of its own? Give some idea of the initial cost and upkeep of such an establishment.

4. Describe the essential features which you consider necessary for the binding of a book for the public lending library.

5. Define the following terms:—re-inforced; tipping; head-band; kettle-stitch; bleed; blind-tooling; marbling; plough; hollow-back; forwarding.

Lesson 8.

Compilation of Bibliographies.

Principles of arrangement, will differ with each type of bibliography. Six methods of arrangement. An author bibliography best arranged chronologically by dates of publication, supplemented with subject and title indexes. For a subject bibliography the best arrangement may be classified, with an alphabetical index to authors and subjects. The best [Pg 19]bibliography is arranged and indexed so that its contents may be found from the point of view of author, title, subject, place, or personal names. The student should examine as many bibliographies as possible, and note their arrangements. He should also possess a thorough knowledge of the practical methods of compiling bibliographies.

Reading List.

American Library Association and Library Association—Code of cataloguing rules. Passim.

Brown—Manual of practical bibliography. Chaps. 5 and 6, pp. 45-86; 99-111.

Cole—Compiling a bibliography: practical hints; with illustrative examples. New York, 1902. 20 pp. Also in L.J. Vol. 26, 1901 pp. 791-795; 859-863.

Coupland—Arrangement and compilation of bibliographies. L.W. Vol. 15, 1912-13, pp. 180-185.

Guppy—Wigan and county bibliographies. L.A.R. Vol 3, 1925 (New series), pp. 94-102.

Greg—What is bibliography? In Trans. Bib. Soc. Vol. 12, 1911-13, pp. 39-53.

Hysett—County bibliography. In Trans. Bib. Soc. Vol. 3, 1895-6, pp. 27-40; 167-170. Parts 1 and 2.

Madan—Method in bibliography. In Trans. Bib. Soc. Vol. 1, 1892-3, pp. 91-103.

Murray—Bibliography: its scope and methods. pp. 78-97.

Parsons—Introduction to elementary bibliography. L. & B. W. Vol. 3, 1912, pp. 84-88.

Peddie—The bases of bibliographical research. L.W. Vol. 25, 1922-23, pp. 348-350.

Peplow—Some tentative proposals for the compilation of a catalogue of best books. L.A.R. Vol. II, 1909, pp. 222-228. Discussion pp. 245-249.

Pollard—Arrangement of bibliographies. L. (New series.) Vol. 10, 1909, pp. 168-187.

[Pg 20]

Sharp—Practical bibliography. L.W. Vol. 13, 1910-11, pp. 377-380.

Sparke—Town bibliographies. L.A.R. Vol. 15, 1913, pp. 366-371.

Stephen—Norfolk bibliography. L.A.R. Vol. 22, 1920, pp. 352-364.

Wheatley—The present condition of English bibliography. In Trans. Bib. Soc. Vol. 1, 1892-3, pp. 61-102. (Model author bibliography is appended).

Questions.

1. What principles would you consider before setting to work on the compilation of a bibliography?

2. State briefly the different methods of compiling bibliographies.

3. Arrange the form headings you would use in compiling a bibliography of Shakespeare.

4. Discuss the value and method of the preparation of a county bibliography.

5. Give three examples (which may be imaginary) of the ideal bibliographical entries for a subject bibliography.

6. Describe generally the plan, contents, and aim of the two following books:—

Sparke (Archibald)—Bibliographia Boltoniensis: being a bibliography, with biographical details, of Bolton authors, and the books written by them from 1550-1912; books about Bolton; and those printed and published in the town from 1785 to date. Bolton, 1913.

and

Hawkes (A. J.)—Lancashire printed books: a bibliography of all the books printed in Lancashire down to the year 1800. Wigan, 1925.

[Pg 21]

TEST EXAMINATION.

Questions to be answered without the aid of text-books, notes, etc.

1. Bibliography is now considered from two standpoints: the practical and utilitarian; or, the historical and dilettante. Explain.

2. By what means would you check a quarto book printed before 1750 to ascertain if it is complete?

3. The Kelmscott Press publications, though beautiful specimens of artistic design applied to typography are at fault from the utility point of view. Explain.

4. State the essentials of good press-work.

5. What are the chief properties of modern book paper?

6. Why is the fibrous direction of paper important to book-work?

7. Explain the difference between “edition” and “library” binding.

8. What details should be specified in a full bibliographical description of an early printed book?

9. What principles should be observed in the annotation of bibliographies?

10. How would you proceed in compiling “a bibliography of guides to book selection since 1900?”

FACTORS AND NOTES RELATING TO PRACTICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

(1) What is the meaning of the word Bibliography?

Bibliography derives its name from two Greek words, which translated literally mean “the writing of books.” This meaning was originally adopted in the English language, the first recorded use of which in English is found in Blount’s “Dictionary” (1656), but with the growth of literature and consequent output of books, the connotation of the term increased rapidly, and rendered the original definition obsolete.

The number of sciences included in the term “bibliography” probably reached its zenith with Gabriel Peignot, a noted [Pg 22]French bibliographer of the last century. In his enthusiasm for the subject he arrogated to bibliography a knowledge of such subjects as philosophy, logic, philology, history, mathematics, geography, etc., in addition to typography, the composition of books, material and literary, and all that appertains to the books themselves. In short, bibliography was to him the scientia scientiarum.

Peignot’s English contemporary, Thomas Hartwell Horne, 1780-1862 gives a more concise definition in his “Study of bibliography” (1814) but he errs in the same manner, though in a lesser degree by claiming for bibliography an encyclopædic knowledge of the history, values and contents of books.

The modern tendency for specialisation renders such erroneous conceptions of the subject impossible, for palæography, typography, history, etc., rank as distinct topics, though, of course, they will always be correlated.

Many attempts have been made in recent times to give a concise definition of what is understood by the term “bibliography,” but there is little uniformity of opinion, and much confusion. The confusion is undoubtedly caused by the application of one term to what should remain distinct studies. The subject now resolves itself into two standpoints—the historical-and-dilettante; or, the practical-and-utilitarian.

Historical bibliography to the general public is yet very vague in its limits, it includes the history of printing, book-collecting, study of the rare and curious in books, etc.; but among experts it is slowly and surely being limited to the history of printing, and in the future the historical side of bibliography will be known as the “history of printing.”

When this understanding comes to pass “bibliography” can be applied to what is now known as “practical bibliography,” which is defined by the late J. D. Brown in his “Manual of bibliography” (1906) as “the science which treats of the description, cataloguing, and preservation of books.”

The word “bibliography” is also applied to the literature of a subject, but in this sense there is little likelihood of confusion as it is generally used in conjunction with another topic, as, “A Bibliography of Cotton Spinning.”

[Pg 23]

(2) Kinds of bibliography.

There are six recognised classes of bibliographies:—

1. General Bibliographies—Books not limited to those of any period, locality, author, or subject, e.g. Brunet’s “Manual du Libraire.”

2. National Bibliographies—Books printed in a given country or about a given country, e.g. “The English Catalogue of Books.”

3. Trade Bibliographies—Books in print or on sale by publishers, with full particulars as to size, price, pages, etc., e.g. Whitaker’s “Reference Catalogue of Current Literature.”

4. Author Bibliographies—Books or articles by, or by and about, a particular author, e.g., “Bibliography of the works of Shakespeare,” by W. Jaggard.

5. Subject Bibliographies—Books and articles about a special subject, e.g., Woodbury’s “Bibliography of Cotton Manufacture.”

6. Bio-Bibliographies—a compilation giving the biographies of writers and lists of their writings, e.g., Allibone’s “Dictionary of Authors.”

(3) Why prefatory pages are sometimes numbered in roman figures.

Prefatory pages are numbered in Roman figures because they are usually printed after the body of the book has been “set up.” In many cases the printer has no estimate of prefatory matter and to overcome the difficulty he numbers the text in Arabic and the preliminary pages in Roman figures.

(4) “Natural history” bibliography.

Panzer has been spoken of as “the one true naturalist among general bibliographers,” and since his day two distinct methods of bibliography have grown up.

One method treats specimens of early printing simply as curiosities, and their value only depending according to their rarity or intrinsic worth, or again to some peculiar characteristic found in them. This method is generally associated with the name of Dibden.

[Pg 24]

The other method, which is called by Henry Bradshaw the “natural history method of bibliography” is associated with the name of Panzer, who was the first practical exponent. By this method each press must be looked upon as a genus, and each book as a species, and the more or less close connection of the different members of the family must be traced by the characters which they present to our observation. Bradshaw’s own work is the best example of this method, and the beginner can follow no better model than the papers he wrote on early printing.

(5) Typography. “point system.”

A unit of measurement has been accepted as a standard for the purpose of enabling the products of different manufacturers to be used together. The unit of measurement adopted in this country and America is the Pica which is approximately one-sixth of an inch in width.

TYPE BODY SIZES.

[Pg 25]

(6) PRINCIPAL SIZES OF TYPE NOW USED IN BOOKS.

This line is Pica (12 point) Modern 12345.

This line is Long Primer (10 point) Old Style

This line is Brevier (8 point) Old Style 12345.

This line is Nonpariel (6 point) Modern 12345.

Type faces.

(7) SIZES OF BOOKS.

(8) Books containing excellent bibliographies.

Aflalo—Natural history of the British Isles (Vertebrates). 1898. 18 pp.

Amherst—History of gardening in England. 1910. 50 pp.

Baldwin—Dictionary of philosophy and psychology. Vol. 3.

Berg—Vitamins. Allen & Unwin, 1923. (List of 1556 Books).

Freeman—A portrait of George Moore. 1922. 53 pp.

Handschin—Methods of teaching modern languages. Harrop, 1923, 65 pp.

Hazen—Europe since 1815. 1910. 36 pp.

Hind—A history of engraving and etching. Constable, 1923. 26 pp. and 68 pp.

Nicoll—A history of Restoration drama. 1923. 28 pp.

[Pg 26]

Rees—Libraries for children. Grafton, 1924. 55 pp.

Schelling—English literature during the life-time of Shakespeare. 1910. 30 pp.

Simpson—The rise of Louis Napoleon. 1909. 18 pp.

Singer & Strang—Etching and other methods of printing pictures. 1897. (List of 441 Books).

Sindall—The manufacture of paper. 1908. 20 pp.

Webb—History of trades unionism. 1894. 44 pp.

Note particularly the very full lists of books and articles appended to the “Cambridge Modern History,” the “Cambridge Medieval History,” and the “Cambridge History of British Foreign Policy” and the “Cambridge History of English and American Literature.”

(9) Some interesting books.

In the research work entailed in compiling this course a great number of very beautiful books came under my notice. I made a careful examination of them, and it was with a pang of regret I had to omit them from the Reading Lists. However, I received so much joy in looking through them—the beauty not always being from the physical side—that I decided to make a select list and advise students to be on the qui vive for any of them. All the books mentioned should be in the possession of our large public reference libraries, and students wishing for a little more than the examination side of their studies would do well to avail themselves of any opportunity they may have of examining the books for themselves. If they are anything like true book-lovers they will be delighted with all they see and read.

Briquet (Ch. M.)—Les filigranes: dictionnaire historique des marques du papier dès leur apparition, vers 1282 jusqu’ en 1600. 4 vols. Leipzig, 1923.

[Pg 27]

The Fleuron—A journal of typography; edited by Oliver Simon. Issued annually since 1923. Contains many interesting and valuable articles such as, in No. 1 “A treatise on the development of the title-page,” by the editor. In No. 2, S. Morison’s article supplies a detailed and documented study of the relation of capitals to lower case letters. In No. 3, an article on “The development of the book,” by P. Angoulvent. In No. 4, “Script types,” by S. Morison, and so on.

Fournier—Manuel typographique, utile aux gens de lettres, et à ceux qui exercent les differentes parties de l’imprimerie. 2 vols. Paris, 1764-66. £14 14s. 0d.

Fry (Joseph) and Sons—A specimen of printing types, by Joseph Fry and Sons, letter-founders, Worship Street, Moorfields, London, 1785.

Guigard—Nouvel armorial du bibliophile; guide de l’amateur des livres armoriés. With numerous armorial illustrations. 2 vols, Paris, 1890.

Grolier Club—Catalogue of an exhibition of illuminated and painted manuscripts, together with a few early printed books with illuminations; also some examples of Persian manuscripts, with plates in facsimile and an introductory essay. New York, privately printed, the Grolier Club, 1892.

Humphreys—The illuminated books of the Middle Ages. An account of the development and progress of the art of illumination as a distinct branch of pictorial ornamentation from the 4th to the 17th centuries. London, 1849.

Martin—La miniature Française du 13th au 15th siècle. Paris and Brussels, 1923.

Periods of Typography—A series of handbooks to historic style in printing. Under the general editorship of Stanley Morison. The first volumes are now issued and others will follow from time to time. Each volume will contain an essay which will introduce the reader to the principal formative influences and to outstanding examples of the respective periods. The introductions are written from the standpoint of the amateur interested in the part played by the printed book in the society and culture of its period, each by experts.

Plomer (Henry R.)—English printers’ ornaments. Grafton, London.

Pollard (A. W.)—Fine books. Illus. 1912.

Silvestre (L. C.)—Marques typographiques on recueil des monogrammes, chiffres, enseignes, emblèmes, devises, rébus et fleurons des libraires et imprimeurs qui ont exercé en France, depuis l’introduction de l’Imprimerie, en 1470, jusqu’à la fin du seizième siècle; a ces marques sont jointes celles des Libraires et Imprimeurs qui pendant la meme période ont publié, hors de France, des livres en langue française. 2 vols. Paris, 1853-67. This work contains over thirteen hundred reproductions of printers’ marks and is looked upon as the standard work on printers’ marks.

Sotheby (S. Leigh)—The typography of the Fifteenth Century: being specimens of the productions of the early Continental [Pg 29]printers, exemplified in a collection of facsimilies from 100 works, together with their water-marks. London, 1845.

Steele (Robert)—The revival of printing. A bibliographical catalogue of works issued by the chief modern English presses, with an introduction by Robert Steele. London, 1912.

Updike (D. B.)—Printing types, their history, forms, and use, a study in survivals. With 367 specimens of various famous presses, from the invention of printing until the present day. 2 vols. Cambridge: U.S.A., 1923.

Wardle (B. L.)—Music title pages, 1500-1925. A selection of examples, with an introduction. London, 1926.

Text Books Required.

Take particular note of the factors and notes to be found at the end of each course.

Lesson 1.

Knowledge of Books of Reference.

(a) Different kinds of bibliographies: universal, national, trade and subject.

The student is advised to read “Bibliography,” by Isadore Gilbert Mudge; preprint of “Manual of library economy,” chapter 24, published by the A.L.A. Publishing Board, Chicago, 1915. For the derivation and present meaning of the word “bibliography,” and a description of the value of reference books, this chapter forms a splendid introduction.

For the various kinds of bibliographies see Mudge’s “New guide to reference books” (or Kroeger’s “Guide to study [Pg 31]and use of reference books”), Stewart and Clarke’s “Book selection,” “List of bibliographical works in the Reading Room of the British Museum,” Brown’s “Manual of practical bibliography,” and Gross’s “List of books and articles chiefly bibliographical, designed to serve as an introduction to the bibliography and methods of English literary history.” The Universal bibliographies by Brunet, British Museum, Burger, Ebert, Graesse, Hain, Maittaire, Panzer, Peddie, Pellechet, Proctor, Watt, etc.

For a comprehensive list of National bibliographies of 49 countries see Peddie’s “National bibliographies: a descriptive catalogue of the works which register the books published in each country.” London, Grafton, 1912. Add the United States Catalog: books in print to January, 1912; edited by M. E. Potter and others, and the Cumulative book index. White Plains, New York, Wilson, 1898-1922. Vols. 1-24. (These two are not included in Peddie’s work;) also the New York State Library. Selected National bibliographies. 3rd edition. Albany. University of the State of New York, 1915. (Library School Bulletin, No. 38). 10c.

The following trade bibliographies should be noted:—American catalogue of books, Book auction records, Publishers’ trade list annual, United States Catalogue, Livingstone (America). Arber, Book prices current, British Science Guild, English catalogue of books, Growoll, Whitaker, etc. (English); Catalogue Annuel. Lorenz, etc. (France); Heinrich, Heinsius, Kayser, etc. (Germany); For general bibliographies the most important are Sonnenschein’s “Best books,” Nelson’s “Standard books,” Gray’s “Books that count,” Robertson’s “Courses of study”; and for American books, the A.L.A. book list, 1905 to date.

A mere acquaintance with the titles of the bibliographies etc., will be of little service. Students must know the general scope, method of arrangement, standpoint, and comparative usefulness of each. It must be remembered also that many of our best bibliographies and guides appear in the Latin, French, and German languages.

[Pg 32]

Reading List.

Questions:—

• Nelson—Standard books.
• Sonnenschein—Best books.
• Graesse—Tresor de livres rares et précieux.
• Mudge—New guide to reference books.
• English Catalogue of books, 1801-1925.
• Brunet—Manuel du libraire.

Lesson 2.

Knowledge of books of reference—continued.

• (b) Catalogues of libraries.
• (c) Bibliographies of bibliography.
• (d) Special bibliographies, and
• (e) Books containing bibliographies.

Every effort should be made to examine and compare the catalogues of the following libraries:—British Museum; Cambridge University; Chemical Society of London; Dr. Williams’ Library; Glasgow University; John Rylands Library; London Library; Pharmaceutical Society of London; Royal College of Surgeons; Royal Geographical Society; Royal Institute of Great Britain; Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society; St. Bride Foundation Library; Society of Writers to H.M. Signet; University of Gottingen, and University of London.

Bibliographies of bibliography by the following authors must be carefully noted:—British Museum; Courtney; Langlois; Peignot; Petzholdt; Stein; Vallée, etc.

For bibliographies of special subjects see Mudge’s “New guide to reference books”; Brown’s “Manual of practical bibliography”; “List of bibliographical works in the Reading Room of the British Museum,” etc.

For short list of books containing bibliographies see pages 25-26, and make a note of any important bibliography you come across during your studies.

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 3.

Principles of selection.

Book knowledge of the ideal selector should be both professional and technical, connoting familiarity with bibliographical aids, ability to compile bibliographical lists, and a thorough understanding of good bookmaking. A knowledge of printing and an acquaintance with the book trade, and a sense of personal intimacy with the books themselves is also [Pg 35]necessary. Book selection is the most important part of a librarian’s work.

To be efficient the student must make a study of the many important aids to book selection and bibliographical guides. His general education should include a wide knowledge of literary and general history, with a smattering of the arts and sciences, followed by a close study of the textual characteristics of books in comparison with editions and reprints, in analysis of the many and various translations of standard books and classics. General principles and theory of selection. Remember that public libraries cater for all readers, those who seek instruction, and others seeking recreation. Attempt made to satisfy all classes of readers. Principles governed by the student’s estimation, of the field of choice; the kind of library to be catered for; size of the library; amount of money available for book purchase. Even large libraries can only make a selection; the smaller the library the smaller the selection within a selection. Selection for public libraries differs from that necessary for private libraries, the former selects, the latter collects. Geographical position of the library to other libraries. Social conditions of the population. Proportional representation. Methods of selection. Choice between editions. Withdrawals and replacements. Unfinished publications. Donations. Duplication. Classification as an aid to selection. Second-hand books. Reader’s suggestions. Revision of stock.

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 4.

Aids and guides to book selection.

The number of guides to book selection is very large and the student will find the best selections in Mudge’s “New guide to reference books,” pp. 224-226; Kroeger’s “Guide ... to reference books”; pp. 111-112; Williams’s “Manual of book selection”; and Stewart and Clarke’s “Book selection.” The numerous guides named in these books should be carefully noted. If possible try to examine the books themselves and note their scope, standpoint, arrangement, and special features (if any).

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 5.

Prose Fiction. Young People’s Literature. Reference Section.

(a) Prose Fiction:—

The selection of prose fiction is not an easy task. Selection should be made on principles as given in Lesson 3. Consideration must be given to the percentage of fiction in relation to other classes, also the class of fiction in demand. Principal [Pg 40]authors of all countries should be represented. Foreign masterpieces should be obtainable in the original. Exclusion of immoral works essential. The librarian or selector will soon realise that he has the most difficult class of reader to satisfy. Selection of novelists will differ with each selector, as in most cases it will be found possible to make only a selection from a selection. About 50 new novels are published weekly, and only the largest libraries are able to purchase most of the suitable fiction. The question of duplication must be carefully considered. The replacement of worn-out and withdrawn books. The second-hand book market. A knowledge of the many guides to fiction necessary, supplemented by periodical literature. Note the literary histories of the various countries, especially the “Cambridge history of English literature” as useful guides to selection. For lists of bibliographies consult Williams’s “Manual of book selection,” pp. 45-47, and Mudge’s “New guide to reference books,” pp. 141-143.

Reading List.

Questions.

3. Give your opinion on how far foreign fiction should be represented in a public library. State whether you are in favour of the original works or of translations.

(b) Young people’s literature:—

Great care should be taken in the selection of books for the Young People’s department. The tastes of the children must be the chief guide, and this will depend to a considerable extent upon the locality in which the child lives. The facts of child psychology are always subject to local conditions. The selection of books for young people who reside in a residential town will differ, even if very slight, to the selection that should be made for children living in a busy industrial or manufacturing centre. Classical literature must not be forced upon young people, but it should be well represented [Pg 42]in beautifully illustrated editions, to encourage the young people to read “the best.” The physical form of books selected must receive special consideration. Good paper, clear type and beautiful illustrations appeal to all readers. Cheap editions should be avoided. The aim of a juvenile collection is to create a reading adult with the ability to discriminate what he ought to read, for this reason educational editions are not recommended for purchase. Sensational literature is undesirable. Collections should be composed of works of romance and adventure, school stories, fairy tales, stories of home and domestic life. Books of a more serious nature however, must not be overlooked, and a choice selection made treating with the lives of the great men and women of all ages, botany, electricity, conduct of life, engineering, geology, history, sports and pastimes, aviation, wireless telegraphy, gardening, painting, art, natural history, etc.

Reading List.

In addition to the above consult the “Children’s Catalogue,” 3rd edition, revised and enlarged, compiled by Minnie Earl Sears based on “Children’s Catalog of thirty-five hundred books,” compiled by Corinne Bacon, containing 4,100 titles with 863 books analyzed, 640 pages. H. W. Wilson Co, 1925, $12. The Glasgow Corporation Public Libraries “Guide for young readers,” the “Descriptive handbook to juvenile literature in the Finsbury Public Libraries,” the “Requisition list of books for school lending libraries, by the [Pg 44]London County Council,” “The Pittsburgh Carnegie Library graded juvenile catalogues,” and the bibliographical lists given in Sayers’s “Children’s Library.”

Questions.

(c) Reference books:—

Select collection of reference books is the foundation of a good reference library. Its utility reckoned by extent and quick service its selection will furnish when demands are made. Large reference libraries should satisfy all demands. Small library collection from a selection, with “quick reference” books its strongest section. How to judge whether a book is more suitable for the reference than the lending department. Place books in the department where they will be most useful. Such works as encyclopedias, directories, dictionaries, atlases, maps, etc., state and parliamentary papers are obviously reference books; antiquarian works and exceptionally large books are also reference books. Allocation of rare, art, and large books. Cost of a book should not be a consideration in deciding lending versus reference books. How far should duplication be carried? Great number of reference works may be obtained second hand. Latest editions, excepting art, essential. Occasional text-books necessary. Local industries well represented. How a reference library is supplemented when in the same building as the lending library. If lending library books are available in the reference library decision of allocation becomes easier. Special facilities available for the loan of reference books. Periodical literature is a valuable asset to a reference library. Many good articles never appear in book-form.

[Pg 45]

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 6.

Commercial Libraries. Local Collections. Other Special Collections.

(a) Commercial Libraries:—

Originally organised to meet trade conditions after the European War. Should be the centre where business men may obtain reliable commercial information immediately on demand, and should contain Commercial and Industrial data (reports of Boards of Trade and Agriculture and Fisheries, Consular and Colonial reports, Parliamentary publications relating to commerce, trade periodicals and catalogues, reports of Chambers of Commerce, statistical publications). Geographical information (atlases, maps, gazetteers, directories, books of travel written from the standpoint of commercial development). Transport and communication (shipping, railway and postal guides, telephone directories, telegraphic codes). Financial information (tariffs, foreign exchanges, banking, company reports). Commercial and industrial law. Business organisation (office methods, advertising, salesmanship, works management, accountancy, costing, etc.). Working collection of special and general reference books. Journals of commerce, industry and finance.

The following bibliographical aids should be examined:—

Reading List.

Refer also to Handbooks on commercial libraries issued by the Glasgow, Manchester, Bolton, Birmingham and other important libraries.

Questions.

(b) Local Collections:—

Every public library should have its local collection, and the book selector should keep a careful look out for (1) all [Pg 48]literature referring to the locality; (2) maps, plans, prints, drawings, photographs, etc., of the locality; (3) writings of local authors; (4) newspapers and periodicals issued locally; (5) literature printed locally; (6) local records, such as parish registers, rate books, and other MSS., printed transactions of the local authorities, local Acts of Parliament, etc., and (7) specimens of the work of local binders, if of any eminence. Many local works may be selected from the second-hand booksellers’ catalogues. County bibliographies are useful in guiding selection, and the columns of the “Publishers’ Circular” must not be overlooked.

Reading List.

Questions.

(c) Other Special Collections:—

Technical Libraries.—Technical libraries are now essential both to technical education and to manufacture. They should consist of all modern text-books, encyclopædias, directories, etc. Polyglot and technological dictionaries. Current digests and indexes to periodical literature and state publications.

Reading List.

Questions.

Foreign Collections:—

Reading List.

Questions.

Books for the Blind.

Reading List.

Lesson 7.

Selection of Special Classes of Literature—continued.

Philosophy and Religion.—Should the selection of philosophical and religious works be made without principles the result will be unsatisfactory. Consecutive reading must always be borne in mind. One-sided selection avoided. Nelson’s “Standard Books, Vols. 1 and 2, Sonnenschein’s “Best Books, Part 1,” and Robertson’s “Courses of study,” should be carefully consulted when selection is being made. Sectarian and “crank” literature should be avoided in selecting religious works. Jastrow’s “Study of religion” is recommended for careful reading as an introduction to religion. Hurst’s “Biblioteca theologia” and his “Literature of theology,” Frazer’s “Golden Bough,” Vol. 12 (for bibliography) and Rands’ “Bibliography,” in Baldwin’s “Dictionary of philosophy and psychology,” Vol. 3 are useful in selection. In both these classes modern thought must be well represented.

Reading List.

[Pg 52]

Questions.

Sociology.

—Always a popular class of literature with the reading public. Frequent revision of stock is essential to retain a “live” class. Subjects like political science and statistics must be represented by the latest editions. The following are the chief guides to selection:—Nelson’s “Standard books,” Vol. 1; Bisseker’s “Student’s library,” pp. 209-239; 281-297; Bliss’s “Handbook of socialism”; Bowker and Isle’s “Readers guide to economic, social, and political science”; Fabian Society’s “What to read on social and economic subjects”; Robertson’s “Courses of study”; Sonnenschein’s “Best books,” Vol. 2; Stammhammer’s “Bibliographie der sozialismus und kommunismus”; “Bibliographie der sozialwissenschaften,” 1905 to date; Bulkeley’s “Bibliographical survey of contemporary sources for the economic and social history of the War”; Zimand’s “Modern social movements”; and in Williams’s “Manual of book selection,” pp. 24-26.

Questions.

Science and Technology:—

The two most important sections in a public library, as the subjects in both classes continually change and develop. [Pg 53]In no other classes do works so soon become obsolete. Before making selection for an initial stock it is advisable to read through as many brief histories of the sciences as possible as they will enumerate the writers whose influence in the various sciences have been greatest. The standard bibliographies must be consulted in selecting initial stock, but when formed, it must be kept alive by a careful reading of the periodical literature, where the latest information will be obtained. As new editions of works in stock are published, they must be purchased if they contain additional or revised material, and take the place of the old edition on the shelf. The British Science Guild’s “Catalogue of British scientific and technical books,” first published in 1921, new and revised edition, 1925, complete with author and subject indexes, together with the numerous guides mentioned in Mudge’s “New guide to reference books,” pp. 23 (technical lists); 97-104 and 104-114 will render ample assistance to the selector, who will also find the British Museum Subject Index most useful for the titles of books in these classes published in England.

Reading List.

Questions.

Literature:—

Very little material has been published on what is best to select in pure literature. Probably the article “Literature” in the Encyclopædia “Britannica” is the best introduction, followed by W. H. Hudson’s “An introduction to the study of literature”, H. B. Charlton’s “Art of literary study: an approach to literature for the plain man,” and Bisseker’s “A student’s library,” pp. 11-45, for general literature. For English the “Cambridge history of English literature,” 14 vols., Knowlson’s “How to study English literature,” Manly and Rickert’s “Contemporary British literature,” and Williams’s “Craft of literature,” may be profitably read and Cant’s “Bibliography of English drama from 1890-1920, giving separate titles and short annotations.” L.A.R. Vol. 24, 1922, pp. 41-57 and Brown’s “The realm of poetry,” 1921 should be consulted. Pancoast’s “American literature,” and “History of American literature,” being supplementary volumes to the “Cambridge history of English literature,” should be followed for American literature. The bibliographies and many guides mentioned on pp. 120-150 in Mudge’s “New [Pg 55]guide to reference books,” should be carefully looked through. “A register of bibliographies of the English language and literature, by C. S. Northup and others.” Milford, 1925, should also be consulted. The general principles of book selection must now be applied, and care taken to be certain that the principal dramatists, poets, essayists, etc., are well represented. Text books dealing with the literary histories of all countries should be available, as well as all guides to literary forms.

Questions

Language:—

Systematic selection essential if the stock is to prove valuable and useful. The standard modern works on all languages should be represented and attention paid to the historical side. Naturally, works on our own language will have preference over all others, followed by a good selection of works on the French, German, Italian, Spanish and Russian languages. Other nationalities should be represented according to the demands made by the public. Students should read the article “Language” in the Encyclopædia Britannica, and as aids to selection consult the following works:—Nelson’s “Standard books,” Vol. 3; Sonnenschein’s “Best books,” Vol. 3; Breule’s “Handy bibliographical guide to the study of German language and literature”; Braunholtz’s “Books of reference and teachers of French”; Robertson’s “Courses of study”; and Williams’s “Manual of book selection,” pp 26-27.

Questions.

Lesson 8.

Fine and Recreative Arts. History. Biography. Geography. Travel.

Fine and Recreative Arts.—Another class where principles must be carefully followed, otherwise a lot of money may be wasted. The general histories, text-books and outlines should present no difficulty. It is when we come to books where the illustrations form the predominating feature that difficulties arise. Many splendid guides are available, including Nelson’s “Standard books,” compiled by the staff of the National Art Library, South Kensington; Sturgis and Krehbiel’s “Annotated bibliography of Fine Art,” compiled by experts; and the British Museum Subject Index. For reference:—the “Universal catalogue of books on art,” 1870-77; and Macfall’s “History of painting” are also useful. Bibliographical articles in the encyclopædias should not be overlooked. Note the bibliographies and guides mentioned in Mudge’s “Reference books,” pp. 114-120. Guides to special subjects are too numerous to mention here, and the student is referred to the lists published by the South Kensington Museum.

Reading List.

Questions.

History, Biography, Geography and Travel:—Consecutive selection necessary. All epochs should be represented and British history well covered. The chief guides to selection are Sonnenschein’s “Best books,” Vol. 3; Nelson’s “Standard books”; Robertson’s “Courses of study”; Langlois’s “Manuel de bibliographie historique,” part 1 (1907); Adams’s “Manual of historical literature” (3rd revised edition, 1903); Annual bulletin and select lists of the Historical Association. Gross’s “Sources and literature of English history” and his “Bibliography of British municipal history” are excellent for British history. Sir P. Protheroe’s “Select analytical list of books concerning the Great (European) War” is the best guide to the literature of the European War.

[Pg 58]

Bibliographies found in Mudge’s “Reference books,” pp. 183-196, the Cambridge Histories and the “Story of the Nations” series are valuable aids.

Guides to biography are scarce but Chambers’s “Biographical dictionary,” Chambers’s “Encyclopædia,” and the “Dictionary of National biography” supplemented by Mudge, pp. 150-168, will answer most calls made upon them.

Voyages and travels always command a good reading public but care should be taken to exclude ephemeral “globe-trotting” variety.

For geography and travel Mill’s “Guide to geographical books and appliances,” revised by A. J. Herbertson and N. E. MacMunn will be found indispensable. It includes geographical novels, general reference works, lists of text-books, in fact nearly a bibliography of geography. The bibliographies found at the end of each chapter of Mill’s “International geography” will also be found useful. In the selection of the older books Anderson’s “Book of British topography” although now a little out of date is still valuable, and Mudge, pp. 172-183 should also be consulted.

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 9.

Selection of Periodicals.

Primary object in the selection of periodicals should be to supplement the stock of books in the library by up-to-date literature not available in book form. The second consideration should be to aim at supplying magazines for recreation as well as instruction. On the same principle that crank and sectarian works are prohibited from the best book stocks so should periodicals of this nature be excluded. Trade, scientific, technical, and special periodicals should receive first consideration, and special attention given to the papers that cover the chief industries of the town to be served. A good selection of periodicals dealing with literature, art, science, etc., will add attractiveness to the room. Newspapers selected should represent the political parties impartially. The various press guides, lists published by large libraries, such as the Mitchell Library and Cannons’s “Classified guide to 1,700 annuals, directories and year books,” Grafton. 1923, 5s., will be found useful in the selection of this class of literature.

Reading List.

Questions.

[Pg 61]

Test Examination.

Questions to be answered without the aid of text-books, notes, etc.

[Pg 62]

FACTORS AND NOTES RELATING TO BOOK SELECTION.

(1) Select List of Universal Bibliographies.

Note.—An universal bibliography has not yet been compiled but the following are recognised as units towards such a work.

(2) Select List of Trade Bibliographies.

American:—

Annual:—

Annual American Catalogue, 1886-1910. New York, Publisher’s Weekly, 1887-1911. No more published.

United States catalog. Annual. New York, Wilson.

Monthly:—

English:—

[Pg 66]

Reference catalogue of current literature, containing the full titles of books now in print and on sale, with the prices at which they may be obtained of all booksellers, and an index containing nearly one hundred and eighty-five thousand references. 3 vols. London, Whitaker.

Book auction records (formerly known as “Sale records,”) a priced and annotated record of London, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Amercian book auctions. June, 1902 to date. London, Stevens.

Book-prices current. December, 1886 to date. London, Stock.

French:—

Catalogue général de la librairie française, 1840-1918. Paris, Jordell, 1867-1921. 28 vols.

[Pg 67]

Annual:—

Catalogue mensuel de la librairie francaise.

Monthly:—

Catalogue mensuel de la librairie française. 1876-1921. Paris.

A classified list.

German:—

Monthly:—

Allgemeine bibliographie. Leipzig, Brockhaus, 1856 to date.

(3) Select List of General Bibliographies.

American Library Association—A.L.A. Catalog. 8,000 volumes for a popular library; with notes, 1904 ... edited by Melvil Dewey. Government Printing Office: Washington, 1904. $1.

A.L.A. Catalog, 1904-1911. Class List, 3,000 titles for a popular library; edited by Elva L. Bascom. Chicago: A.L.A. Pub. Board, 1912. 350 pp. 26 cm. $1.50.

[Pg 68]

Nelson, Thomas and Sons, Publishers.—Standard Books: an annotated and classified guide to the best books in all departments of literature; with copious index of subjects and biographical notes of authors. 4 vols. 1910-14.

Sonnenschein, William Swan—The Best Books: a reader’s guide to the best available books (about 100,000) ...; with the dates of the first and last editions, and the price, size, and publisher’s name (both American and English) of each book. 3rd edition, entirely re-written. George Routledge & Sons, Ltd., London. Putnam, New York. 3 parts. In Progress. 1910. £2 2s. net. Contents:—Part 1.—Theology. Mythology and folk-lore. Philosophy.

A very useful classified bibliography.

(4) Bibliographies of Bibliography.

Courtney (William Prideaux)—Register of national bibliography; with, a selection of the chief bibliographical books and articles printed in other countries. London, Constable, 1905-12. 3 vols. [Pg 69] Arranged alphabetically by the subjects of the bibliographies listed.

Josephson (Aksel Gustav Salomon)—Bibliographies of bibliography chronologically arranged, with occasional notes and an index. Bibliographical Society of Chicago, Chicago, 1901. Second edition, 1913.

Petzholdt (Julius)—Bibliotheca bibliographica. Leipzig, Engelmann, 1866.

Stein (Henri)—Manuel de bibliographie générale: bibliotheca bibliographica nova. Paris, Picard, 1897.

Vallée (Léon)—Bibliographie des bibliographies. Paris, Terquem, 1883.

Bibliographical Works:—

British Museum—List of bibliographical works in the Reading Room of the British Museum. 2nd edition, revised. 1889. Much out of date, but useful for older books.

(5) Annual Output of Books in the United Kingdom.

Books in 1925.

According to the “Publishers’ Circular” more books were published during 1925 than in any previous year in the history of British book production. A total of 13,202 is recorded as having been published in the United Kingdom. This is an increase of 496 over the total for 1924. This increase has [Pg 70]taken place in the “new books” as distinguished from “new editions,” etc., and is shown in detail in the following figures for this year and last year:—

The following details show how the totals for the various classes of books vary from those of the previous year. Increases are shown in Juvenile Literature (108), Law (88), Military and Naval (74), Philology (60), Biography (55), Agriculture and Gardening (46) and Science (32). The decreases are General Works (49), Fine Arts (44), Fiction (32), Philosophy (29), and Poetry and Drama (16).

The following totals for the years since 1913 (the pre-war record year) are of considerable interest:—

The above tables show that during the years 1913-1925 no fewer than 139,253 books were published in the United [Pg 71]Kingdom. It is when we realise such a fact as this that we should appreciate the great importance of book selection to the librarian.

(6) Initial Stock for a Public Library.

In selecting the initial stock for a Public Library the following principles should be considered: (a) size of the locality; (b) the sum of money available for books; (c) the geographical position of the library in relation to other libraries. Before any books are actually purchased, the tables of the classification to be adopted should be taken and each section checked with the corresponding section of proposed purchases. This will immediately show any important omissions.

(7) Proportional Representation of Classes.

The proportion of books to be purchased in each class of literature will depend largely upon the social conditions of the locality and the prominence of local industries.

The following table is merely suggestive:—

(8) Reference and Lending Library Stocks.

The average proportions of Lending and Reference Library stocks are: Lending, 62%; Reference, 38%.

(9) Proportion of Income for Books After Organisation.

18% of income should be spent on books, including old books and replacements.

[Pg 72]

(10) Twenty-five “quick-reference” Books for The Open Shelves in a Reference Library.

(Arranged according to the Dewey Classification as a mnemonic aid).

• Encyclopædia Britannica.
• Baldwin—Dictionary of psychology and philosophy.
• Hastings—Dictionary of religion and ethics.
• Hastings—Dictionary of the Bible.
• Cruden—Concordance.
• Palgrave—Dictionary of political economy.
• Mulhall—Dictionary of statistics.
• Every Man’s Own Lawyer.
• Webster—English dictionary.
• Murray—New English dictionary.
• Clifton and Grimaux—English-French and French-English dictionary.
• Grimm—Deutsches Worterbuch.
• Lewis and Short—Latin dictionary.
• Liddell and Scott—Greek Lexicon.
• Watts—Dictionary of chemistry.
• Quain—Medical dictionary.
• Knight—Business cyclopædia and legal adviser.
• Thorpe—Dictionary of applied chemistry.
• Bryan—Dictionary of painters and engravers.
• Grove—Dictionary of music and musicians.
• Cambridge History of English literature.
• Haydn—Dictionary of dates.
• Dictionary of national biography.
• Chambers’s Biographical dictionary.
• Low and Pulling—Dictionary of English history.

(11) Fourteen Author Concordances.

Burns. Reid—Complete word and phrase concordance to the poems and songs of Robert Burns.

Cowper. Neve—Concordance to the poetical works of William Cowper.

[Pg 73]

Dante Alighieri. Fay—Concordance of the Divina Commedia.

Gray. Cook—A concordance to the English poems of Thomas Gray.

Homer. Dunbar—Complete concordance to the Odyssy and Hymns of Homer.

Milton. Lockwood—Lexicon to the English poetical works of John Milton.

Pope. Abbott—Concordance to the works of Alexander Pope.

Scott. Redfern—The wisdom of Sir Walter.

Shakespeare. Bartlett—New and complete concordance of William Shakespeare.

Shelley. Ellis—Lexical concordance to the poetical works of P. B. Shelley.

Tennyson. Baker—Concordance to the poetical and dramatic works of Alfred Lord Tennyson.

(12) Forty Useful Books for the Young People’s Room.

Text Books Required.

Lesson 1.

Introduction. Meaning, Purpose, and Utility. Terminology. Logical Bases.

In classification, more than in any other branch of library science, practical application is dependent on a sound knowledge of theoretical principles, and students are warned that a thorough grasp of the logical bases is an absolutely essential preliminary to successful practical work.

Importance of classification in our daily life is not fully appreciated, classification being the sole foundation of all order. It would be impossible for the mental faculties to function efficiently without classification, the simplest thought or reason requiring its use.

Note the purpose of classification and the mutual dependence of classification and cataloguing.

It is essential to know the exact logical meaning of terms used in classification.

Understand the Five Predicables. After mastering their definition, study Tree of Porphyry for their application. A close study of the latter will amply repay students. It admirably illustrates meaning of Extension and Intension, and demonstrates how in the framing of the scheme the hierarchy must proceed gradually from terms of great Extension and little Intension to terms of little Extension but of great Intension.

The student is strongly advised not to pass Jevons until he has thoroughly mastered the chapters set out below.

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 2.

Principles. Kinds of Classification. Schedules.

The survey of the logical bases in Lesson 1 leads to a more definite consideration of the main principles of classification and schedule formation. A close study of natural and artificial classification must be made at this stage. An investigation of the difference between them will stress the importance of the choice of characteristic. It will be emphasised during this lesson that the characteristic selected must be essential to the purpose for which the classification is intended.

Botany and zoology have provided notable instances of natural and artificial classification. In studying these schemes notice particularly the process of division, the gradual modulation [Pg 79]from Class to Division, Sub-Division, and Section, the Extension of the terms becoming smaller and the Intension greater as the process of division is continued.

One fault which can create endless confusion is Cross-Division. To avoid this the terms used in the schedule must be mutually exclusive.

The classification of books cannot reach the perfection of a classification of knowledge. The latter is limited only by the limitation of knowledge, but the former by the physical form of books. All bibliographical schemes, however, should be based on the classification of knowledge.

Realise clearly the necessity for and the functions of the topic and form classes which form part of every bibliographical scheme. Throughout this lesson it will be seen that classification is governed by the principles laid down in the Five Predicables.

If attention has been duly paid to the ground covered in Lessons 1 and 2 no difficulty will in future be experienced with regard to the theory, bases, or principles of classification, but if, on the other hand, any difficulty is felt in answering questions bearing upon these principles, students have devoted insufficient time to their study, and are strongly advised to make good the deficiency before proceeding further.

Reading List.

[Pg 80]

Questions.

Lesson 3.

History. Principal Schemes. Comparisons. Special Classes.

A glance at the list of schemes which have been devised is sufficient to convince us of the formidable task it would be to acquire detailed knowledge of each one. This, however, is not essential. Apart from the principal epoch-making schemes, only sufficient attention need be paid to them to trace the development of classification. Bacon’s scheme has had a great influence and must receive full consideration. Sayers’s Introduction contains the most satisfactory outline of this. In the same work brief outlines of the principal schemes are given, and good accounts are available in Brown’s Library Classification. These two books cover sufficient ground for the general student, but those who wish to make a more exhaustive survey of the various schemes will find further details in Edwards’s Memoirs of libraries, Vol. 2.

Of the schemes in use at the present time the Decimal, Subject, Expansive, and Library of Congress are selected as the most important, and while a good knowledge of the two latter is required, students are urged to concentrate their main study upon and confine their practical exercises to the Decimal and Subject schemes, chiefly because they are almost [Pg 81]in exclusive use so far as British libraries are concerned, but also on account of the fact that candidates for the Library Association certificate are required to pass a practical test in these two.

Pay particular attention to the Introductions.

The popular method of systematically comparing the two class by class is the best. It will be found most convenient to take the classes in the order appearing in the Decimal, and compare with the corresponding portions of the Subject. Make full use of Sayers’s Canons here. Valuable for analysis of the four main schemes. The Indexes should also be included in the comparison.

Study carefully the criteria of a practical book classification as given in Richardson’s Classification, page 42, and consider to what extent these requirements are met.

Special consideration must be given to those classes which at various times have been severely criticised, and the student should be completely au fait with the arguments for and against the treatment of the forms and subjects upon which opinions vary, e.g., Biography.

Hulme’s Principles of book classification, in L.A.R., Vol. 13, 1911, pp. 354-358; 389-394; 444-449. Vol. 14, 1912, pp. 39-46; 174-181; 216-221 (summarised in Sayers’s Introduction, Appendix 1) takes a view of classification not entirely supported by the reading matter set in this course. For this reason the student is advised to reserve his study of these articles until having covered the reading prescribed, so that he may read them more critically and make a clearer comparison of the points of view.

Reading List.

Brown’s Subject Classification was published in 1906 and reviews and criticisms of the work can be read in the following [Pg 83]professional periodicals:—Savage (E. A.) in L.W. Vol. 9, 1906-07, pp. 48-55. Lyster (T. W.) in L.A.R. Vol. 8, 1906, pp. 384-386. Coutts (A. T.) in L.A. Vol. 6, 1909, pp. 304-318. Brown’s Revisions, etc., in L.W. Vol. 12, 1909-10, pp. 41-45; 81-86; 121-124; 153-160.

Questions.

Lesson 4.

Notation. Expansions. Mnemonics. Author Marks. Arrangement. Guiding.

Notation affects in a very large degree the usefulness and even the librarian’s choice of a scheme.

A notation must be simple, brief, and flexible. Consider the extent to which the principal schemes meet these requirements, and weigh the advantages and disadvantages of a “pure” notation, as in the Decimal, or a “mixed” notation, as in the Subject scheme. The most notable expansion of the Decimal notation is the “Brussels,” which should be carefully surveyed.

[Pg 84] Note the mnemonic features of the various notations, as these assist in the rapid interpretation of the symbols, and enable one’s mind to more readily grasp the linking-up of the whole scheme. Notation is of itself insufficient for practical arrangement on the shelves, as the necessity arises for some method of regulating the order of the books within each Division, Section, etc., hence the use of Author Marks. Several tables have been compiled, but the most detailed and best known is Cutter’s, although the other tables must receive due attention as the Cutter Author Marks are not in exclusive use.

The arrangement of the books on the shelves is most important, and it is essential to reach the best solutions of the problems regarding “broken sequence,” “oversize books,” etc.

It must be remembered that the Library is intended for the use of people who do not want to study the intricate details of a notation in order to find what they want, and it should be made possible for readers not merely to find the subjects they require, but also to find their way about the various classes intelligently, but unaided. To achieve this a most carefully devised method of guiding will be necessary, and all methods and contrivances should be studied, as faulty or insufficient guiding will minimise the benefits of exact classification.

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 5.

Practical.

As a preliminary to actual classification it is essential to obtain a thorough grasp of certain rules which, in a general sense, govern the placing of books.

[Pg 86] With this aim in view students should first read Chapter 12 of Sayers’s “Introduction,” and again read Jast’s “Library classification” in Greenwood’s Library Year Book, 1900-1901, and the Introductions to the Decimal and Subject Schemes.

Students may afterwards pass on to Sayers’s “Introduction,” part 3—A short course in practical classification, with special reference to the Decimal and Subject schemes. This provides a thorough test of ability in classification, bringing forward examples requiring a decision on the points which present most difficulty in practice.

It is important that students should guard against misuse of the index. In placing a book reference must be made direct to the schedules, and the index used only as an aid to, not a means of classification.

TEST EXAMINATION.

Questions to be answered without the aid of text-books, notes, etc.

A practical test is not included, as this, in its best form, is easily accessible in the papers set at past Library Association examinations, which are obtainable from the office of the Association.

The student must bear in mind that it is far better to classify from the actual book, but where this entails any inconvenience the articles appearing in the “Nineteenth Century and After” and the books reviewed in the “Times Literary Supplement” may be classified.

Further, I would urge the student to be ever on the qui vive for books which seem to present most difficulty, as herein lies the best practice.

FACTORS AND NOTES.

Brief chronological list of the principal schemes of classification.

• 250 B.C. Callimachus
• 1548 Conrad Gesner
• 1623 Francis Bacon
• 1678 Jean Garnier
• 1679 Ismael Bouillaud
• 1773 Cels
• 1806 Barbier
• 1810 Schrettinger
• 1836-38 British Museum
• 1842 Brunet
• 1857 Royal Institution (Vincent)
• 1859 Edward Edwards
• 1870 W. T. Harris
• 1873 Cutter. Published 1876
• 1876 Melvil Dewey
• 1879 Schwarz
• 1887 Sonnenschein
• 1888 Hartwig
• 1890 Bonazzi
• 1894 Quinn-Brown
• 1898 Brown’s Adjustable
• Brussels Expansion of Dewey
• 1902 Library of Congress
• 1906 Brown’s Subject

[Pg 88]

Classification Systems Used in British Municipal Libraries.

In looking over the statistics of nearly 600 British Municipal Libraries I find the systems of classification adopted stated as “Main Classes,” “Brown,” “Sectional,” “Adjustable,” “Fixed Location,” “Various,” etc., and to compile a list under the various heads would serve no useful purpose. I find, however, that the Dewey Decimal System, sometimes modified, is in use in over 300 libraries, Brown’s “Subject” and Brown’s “Adjustable” in over 100 libraries, Cutter’s “Expansive” in about 10, and the remainder various.

Text Books Required.

(See also The Cataloguer’s Reference Shelf).

THE CATALOGUER’S REFERENCE SHELF.

(Books other than those named in “Text Books,” and “Reading Lists” in this Course.)

General.

Note.—The British Museum catalogue of printed books is one of the most useful works for finding any bibliographical data.

Pseudonyms, Anonyms.

Places, Names, etc.

[Pg 91] The list could be considerably extended, but for more detailed information on cataloguer’s reference tools the following will answer most enquiries:—

Lesson 1.

Scope and Purpose. Qualifications of a Cataloguer. History. Definitions.

It should be realised at the beginning of this course that the sole purpose of cataloguing is to construct a tool (not merely for the staff but primarily for the public) the use of which will render available the full resources of the library. In your practical work remember always that the best criterion is the extent to which a reader is led to the information sought for.

The difficulty of the task and the amount of care required are reflected in the qualifications deemed necessary. Read thoughtfully Bishop, pp. 60-63, and Quinn, pp. 2-3.

Although the earlier examples of catalogues provide little guide to present-day practice, much can be learnt by tracing the development of cataloguing and the history of the various codes.

Where possible examine the outstanding catalogues, British Museum, Bibliothèque Nationale, Boston Athenæum, London Library Catalogue and Subject Index, and the two parts of the 1923 edition of the American Library Association catalogue. Good examples of classified catalogues are those issued by the Bolton, Brighton, Finsbury and Glasgow Public Libraries.

[Pg 92]

Develop a critical habit, and in handling as many catalogues as possible, pay special attention to their style and peculiarities, applying to them the tests of efficiency outlined in the various readings of this course.

Learn thoroughly the exact meaning of bibliographical and cataloguing terms. An imperfect knowledge of these not merely retards progress, but prevents one acquiring uninterruptedly the full significance of the matter under consideration.

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 2.

Style of entry. Order of information. Collation. Punctuation. Abbreviations. Numerals. Size.

Cataloguing practice varies in most libraries, but the reasons for the various modifications in use do not enter into consideration here, the purpose being to show what are generally accepted as the best style and method.

If care is taken during the present lesson to adopt a correct form of entry this will become more familiar to the student while covering the practice outlined in succeeding lessons, and the exactness and careful attention to detail which are so essential will thus be automatically acquired.

Note the exact order in which the information should be given (see example on page 114). Follow this in all practice, giving fullest information required by the particular form of entry being made out.

The clearness and uniformity of entries are largely affected by punctuation and the extent to which items of the collation are abbreviated. The latter is too often overdone. Note the various abbreviations used and the considerations as to whether the gain of space is commensurate with the loss of clearness to the reader.

Obtain a complete understanding of the respective uses of Arabic and Roman numerals, and the methods of giving the sizes of books.

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 3.

Main Entry. Author Entry. Analytical Entries.

Rules governing Main and Author entries take up the major portion of most codes of rules, but as they are better studied as a complete series they are all included in this lesson.

It will be found that the various codes disagree in the form of entry for certain names, etc. Study the reasons for each variation, and after making comparison, attempt an independent decision as to the best form.

Many of the rules are quite simple and easily remembered, but in those cases where the procedure does not appear to be straightforward the student is advised to trace a book which meets the description of the rule under consideration. In most instances the actual handling and examination of an example will assist one to grasp much more readily the instructions and the reason for the ruling.

[Pg 95]

The best method of working is to study primarily the Anglo-American Code, comparing rule by rule with the corresponding portion of other codes, noting differences as they occur.

Necessity often arises for dealing separately with the contents of a book. Consider the extent to which analytical treatment should be carried out, and the form of the entries necessary.

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 4.

Subject Entry. References. Form Entry.

Here we face the most difficult and vital part of cataloguing, requiring the maximum amount of care, ability, and discretion, so essential is the choice of correct headings to the success of a catalogue.

There are no fixed rules as in the case of author entries, and few cataloguers, even of long experience, feel completely satisfied with their work in this direction. As a warning to the unwary, it has truly been said that in the choice of subject headings and cross references more absurdities can be perpetrated than in any other branch of library work.

The appended reading matter is amply suggestive of the best practice, and illustrative of the errors to be avoided, and should be read with studious attention. Note the insistent emphasis on uniformity and consistency, attainment of which requires a definite adherence to a decision once taken; the choice of popular, rather than scientific or technical names; use of terms of permanent character; avoidance of foreign terms where there are English equivalents; choice of most specific subject; constant aim at ease of consultation, best obtained by placing oneself in the position of a reader; constant guard against the occurrence of synonymous headings and the useless multiplication of headings; care not to misuse national adjectives and geographical sub-divisions; inclusion of the necessary references, etc.

Do not overlook the utility of a card list of the subject headings in use.

[Pg 97] The A.L.A. list of subject headings for a dictionary catalogue; Library of Congress list of subject headings; A.L.A. Catalogue, with supplements; Mann’s Subject headings for juvenile catalogues; Sears’s List of subject headings for small libraries; and good encyclopædias, are extremely useful guides and should be closely studied.

Students should make a special point of reading those portions of the preface to the London Library Catalogue which deal with our subject, and examine the separately published Subject Index.

The inclusion of form entries is often carried too far. Weigh carefully the value of such entries, and in examining catalogues give special consideration to the question as to whether the advantage of their inclusion is commensurate with the space required.

Reading List.

[Pg 98]

Questions.

Lesson 5.

Title and Series Entries.

Catalogues are often uselessly encumbered with superfluous title entries. Realise the legitimate function of a title entry, and note the works for which this is necessary, e.g., works published anonymously, plays, fiction, books with catchy titles, some music, etc.

In studying best form of entry, note the necessary transposition of some titles, and the use of title-subject entry. See recommendations re books published under different titles, and the selection of correct title when binder’s title, translator’s title, etc., do not agree with the title page.

A careful decision must be made as to which series require entry, as this is not necessary in all cases. Study examples of various methods of arranging items under a series heading, the necessary entries or references for the editor of a series, and the correct practice in cases where the editor of a series has written one or several of the books in that series.

[Pg 99]

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 6.

Annotation.

Unless annotation is done very well, and the information given is very accurate, it is better not attempted. Study the object of annotation, and when it is necessary. Remember that the need of the readers is the chief guiding principle.

Each class of literature has its own special requirements in annotation, and after noting the general principles, the student will find it profitable to study the classes individually.

[Pg 100]

The subject is treated fully in Savage’s Manual, and the shorter articles in the following list deal specially with selected points or add emphasis to some particular aspect of the subject.

Reading List.

Questions.

[Pg 101]

Lesson 7.

Varieties of catalogues. Co-operative cataloguing. Central Cataloguing Bureau; Union catalogues. Cataloguing for special purposes:—children’s catalogues, bulletins, lists, etc.

Study definition of each style of catalogue, author, subject, dictionary, classified, alphabetical-classed, etc. The dictionary and classified forms are mostly in use, and opinion is divided as to which is the more suitable style for a public library, each claiming merits not possessed by the other. In order to decide which style most adequately serves the needs of the particular public using the library, consider what questions are likely to be asked of a catalogue which it may be reasonably expected to answer, and see to what extent these are met by the respective styles of catalogues.

The policy of establishing a Central Cataloguing Bureau in England is under constant reference. Study the advantages claimed for, and difficulties to be surmounted by, such a department. To what extent does the Library of Congress card scheme satisfy requirements in this direction?

Many suggestions have been made with a view to co-operation in cataloguing. Consider what it is claimed possible to accomplish in this direction, and note what has been attempted towards this end.

The Manchester and Glasgow union catalogues are notable examples of co-operation in order to give fullest information on a particular subject available in the locality.

Carefully consider the utility of these attempts at co-operation, and the possibilities underlying the various suggestions which have been made.

Note the extent to which the usual cataloguing practice is modified when compiling children’s catalogues, lists, bulletins, etc.

[Pg 102]

Reading List.

Varieties of catalogues:—

Co-operative cataloguing; Central cataloguing dept.; Union catalogues.

Cataloguing for special purposes:—Children’s Catalogues, Bulletins, Lists, etc.

Questions.

Lesson 8.

Forms of Catalogues:—Card, Sheaf, Printed, Placard, etc. Methods of display.

The librarian’s choice of catalogue does not end with the decision on a dictionary or a classified variety. The form of the catalogue has also to be considered. Of the three main forms—card, sheaf, and printed, the number of each kind in use at the present time testifies to the varying opinions held as to their suitability.

Study the considerations affecting the choice of any one of these, and the advantages claimed for each.

In order to ensure the fullest use being made of the catalogues by the public, no effort should be spared in making them most conveniently accessible. Although the devices invented to achieve this end are so numerous, many of them are mere variations of the same principle, and although opportunity must be taken to see as many different kinds as possible, an examination of a device illustrating each principle will enable the student to grasp the underlying idea of all.

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 9.

Preparation of the printed catalogue.

Note the various decisions required in planning a catalogue—edition, size, type, paper, binding.

Draw up a sample specification. Study the practice in obtaining tenders, and considerations necessary in deciding upon the most suitable.

Careful preparation and marking of the copy will save troublesome corrections at a later stage. It must be clearly marked to show the printer the various changes of type.

Learn the correction marks used in checking proof. Attention must be given to the necessary captions, etc., when checking page proof.

Considerations regarding type will be simplified by a knowledge of the Point System of type measurement (see paragraph on page 24).

[Pg 106]

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 10.

Indexing. Arrangement. Alphabetising.

Efficient indexing is an absolute necessity if the information contained in the Library or in the catalogue, if in classified form, is to be made fully and readily available.

Lack of experience in this direction accounts in many cases for the impression that indexing requires no great amount of discretion or ability, and students are warned that this erroneous estimate is invariably a preliminary to unsatisfactory work.

Compare the manner in which relative and specific indexes respectively achieve their object.

A decision will be required upon several points in compiling an index to a catalogue, e.g., use of page or location number for reference, form of entry, etc. Some entries are short almost to the point of being cryptic, others apparently contain matter superfluous in an index.

[Pg 107]

Even in the matter of arranging the entries custom varies. Study the rules laid down by Cutter. Make a special point of consistency in alphabetising.

Reading List.

Questions.

TEST EXAMINATION.

Questions to be answered without the aid of text books, notes, etc.

As in Course 3, Classification, the best practical test lies in the papers set at past Library Association examinations. These may be had at a trifling cost on application to the Offices of the Association.

NOTES ON CATALOGUING FRENCH AND LATIN BOOKS.

In cataloguing French books the following codes must be thoroughly studied: Quinn—Manual of Library Cataloguing, 1913 edition, pp. 114, 125, 127. Cutter’s Rules for a Dictionary Catalogue. Section 29, pp. 34-35, and A.L.A. & L.A. Cataloguing Rules.

[Pg 109]

The difficulty of cataloguing French books is mainly found with names containing the prefix Le, La, L’, Du, Des, De la, D’, De.

The student should note the method of treatment in the above codes and supplement this by consulting the indexes of standard text-books of French literature, noting what names the authors are entered under, and see how far they agree with the codes. Such works as Faguet’s “A literary history of France,” The Library of Literary History Series; Dowden’s “A history of French literature,” Short Histories of the Literatures of the World; Saintsbury’s “A short history of French literature”; and Wright’s “A history of French literature” will well repay careful perusal.

An early mistake in cataloguing French books is to enter the letter M as an initial of the author. If the letter is hyphenated to another letter, e.g., M-A—then the M. stands for one of the author’s initials, but should it have a full stop, as M.A.—then the letter M would stand as an abbreviation for Monsieur.

The general rule is to enter under the prefix when it contains an article, le, la, l’, du, des, but not under the preposition de, d’, e.g.,

• Le Sage, Alen René
• La Fontaine, Jean de
• Du Boisgobey, Fortune
• Chenier, André Marie de
• Aubigne, Agrippa d’

Exceptions do occur, but very seldom, and then only in the case of very early writers, when the full name is best given, e.g.,

When prefixes are embodied as part of a surname, it must be catalogued as one name, e.g.,

[Pg 110] In cataloguing Latin books the following codes must be studied: Quinn—Manual of Library Cataloguing, pp. 128-130; Cutter—Rules for a Dictionary Catalogue, Section 30, and A.L.A. & L.A. Cataloguing Rules.

It is now the general practice to enter Latin authors under the English name, as adopted in our standard biographical dictionaries, such as Smith’s “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography,” and Harper’s “Dictionary of classical literature and antiquities.” In a great number of cases, however, these dictionaries enter under the Latin or vernacular form and the beginner in cataloguing Latin books is soon in difficulties, and still greater confusion results where an author has three names, as Titus Lucretius Carus, or Caius Suetonius Tranquillus, he does not know which is the best name. The nominative case is the best for the heading in practically every case. In order to become familiar with the names of Latin authors the beginner should know the case endings of the various declensions, especially the nominative and genitive plural, also the indexes to the following books may be profitably perused: Crutwell’s “A history of Roman literature,” also Appendix at pp. 483-489; Dimsdale’s “A history of Latin literature”; Duff’s “A literary history of Rome”; Wilkins’s “Roman literature.”

A careful observation of the various names should enable the cataloguer to recognise them when a Latin book comes along, for instance in

• P. Ovidi Nasonis Tristium. Libri V. Recensuit.
• Catulli, Veronensis liber: iterum recognovit.
• P. Terenti, Comoediæ.
• T. Macci Plavti Rudens.

The student should be able to select the names Ovidi, Catulli, Terenti and Plavti and from these we get the Anglicised names Ovid, Catullus, Terence and Plautus.

The Printed Catalogue.

The printed catalogue is rapidly disappearing due chiefly to the high cost of printing and the almost universal adoption of the open-access system. A card or sheaf catalogue, supplemented [Pg 111]by bulletins or occasional lists, is in use in most libraries, but the following still find it advisable to issue Class Lists: Bolton, Brighton, Burnley, Finsbury and Glasgow. In each case the Dewey Decimal Scheme is the plan of arrangement. The following libraries issue printed bulletins or reader’s guides:—Coventry, Croydon, Ipswich, Norwich, Nottingham and Warrington.

Specification for Printing a Catalogue.

The best way to have a catalogue printed is first of all have a specimen page “set up,” with entries that will bring in all the types to be employed. This, together with a copy of the specification may be sent to six different firms inviting them to tender for so much per page.

Specification for printing a Public Library Catalogue.

BOROUGH OF MONTANA.

GEORGE PRESTON,
Borough Librarian.

Public Library,
Montana.

[Pg 114]

Order of Bibliographical particulars for Cataloguing.

• 1. Author’s surname.
• 2. Author’s forenames.
• 3. Author’s distinctions.
• 4. Title of book.
• 5. Additions to title if any.
• 6. Name of editor or translator.
• 7. Edition if stated.
• 8. Series if any (A.L.A. and L.A. bring this after No. 13).
• 9. Place of publication.
• 10. Name of publisher.
• 11. Date of publication.
• 12. Number of volumes.
• 13. Size.
• 14. Number of pages.
• 15. Illustrations.
• 16. Portraits.
• 17. Maps.
• 18. Plans.
• 19. Facsimiles.
• 20. Diagrams.
• 21. Tables.
• 22. Charts.
• 23. Music in text.
• 24. Memoir.
• 25. Glossary.
• 26. Bibliography.
• 27. Contents.
• 28. Annotation.

By James Cranshaw.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Any of the following text-books will be found sufficiently full to answer all questions in the general paper up to 1745. After that date, a wider acquaintance with English literature is desirable. Students who wish for a merit or honours certificate must show a more intimate knowledge than is to be gained from mere text-books. In this case he must read the authors themselves, write out his own opinion, and check it with the opinion of recognised critics. Only in this way will English literature live and be of service to him after the examination is passed.

[Pg 115] 1. Text Books.

2. Reference Books.

[Pg 116]

3. Useful Anthologies.

There are of course several good anthologies dealing with special periods or special forms. The student is warned, however, against forming any definite opinions from mere selections, as these may reflect editorial idiosyncrasy or be restricted to one side of an author’s work.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: SPECIAL PERIODS.

Part I.—c. 500-1500.

1. Reading.

2. Reference.

Part II.—1500-1630.

1. Reading.

2. Reference.

[Pg 118]

Part III.—1630-1745.

1. Reading.

2. Reference.

Part IV.—1745-1832.

1. Reading.

2. Reference.

Part V.—1832-1920.

1. Reading.

2. Reference.

LITERARY HISTORY.

Lesson 1 (c. 500-1500).

Part I.—Old English Period (c. 500 to 1066).

Forces at Work.—The Anglo-Saxon invasion and gradual conquest and settlement. The coming of Christianity and its struggle with the pagan view of life. The inroads of the Danes and the growth of national feeling under Alfred. The subsequent Danish rule and the Gallicising of the court. The Norman Conquest.

Literary Features.—Early literature pagan. The late development of Christian prose and poetry. The preponderance of anonymous works. The lack of originality shown in the large number of translations and imitations. Pagan literature almost wholly descriptive and narrative; the meditative element. Christian literature chiefly religious and didactic. Note the chief surviving texts and their peculiarities; also the characteristics of Anglo-Saxon prosody.

Part II.—Middle English Period (1066-1350).

Forces at Work.—Effects of the Norman Conquest. Growth of feudalism. The struggle between the king and barons, and between ecclesiastical and civil power. The spread of monastic orders; the development of Parliament and constitution. The wars with Scotland, France and Wales; the growth of towns and industries. The foundation of universities and the growth of scholarship. The beginnings of chivalry and the spirit of romance.

Literary Features.—The disappearance of Anglo-Saxon as a literary language. The predominance of Latin and French works until the 13th century. The gradual merging of Norman and Anglo-Saxon into English; the clash of dialects and the final triumph of the West Midland speech; the subsequent struggle between Latin, French, and native models in poetry and prose. Note the decrease in anonymous works (but lack of detail regarding most authors), and the absence of any great literary figure. Poetry predominates and attains new forms in the metrical romance and the lyric. The revival of alliteration at the end of the period. The growth of rhymed models.

Part III.—The Early Renaissance (1350-1500).

Forces at Work.—The growing social unrest following the Plague. The growth of town life and industries. The strengthening of Parliament under the Lancastrians. The decay of the religious orders and growth of Lollardy. The introduction of printing leading to a wider interest in literature.

Literary Features.—The renewal of continental influences under Chaucer. The standardisation of English. The growth of the critical spirit leading in religion to polemic and in poetry to a nearer approach to realism. The development of miracle [Pg 123]and morality plays in connection with industries and town life. The decline of anonymity and the appearance of the first great literary figures. The growing importance of prose, and the formation of a definite style. The development of a new prosody, and the growth of allegory, ballad literature, and political songs. The rapid development in Scotch poetry.

TEST PAPER—(c. 500 to 1500).

Lesson 2 (1500-1630)

Part I.—Renaissance and Reformation (1500-1579).

Forces at Work.—The accession of the Tudors making for peace and social development. The introduction and spread of the new learning by Erasmus and others. The Reformation. Henry’s struggle with the Papacy, and the resulting reconstitution of the English church and dissolution of the monasteries. The religious persecutions under Mary and Elizabeth, and the beginnings of Puritanism.

Literary Features.—A period of transition and for the most part poor in material. Changes in the language, such as the dropping of the final e, are causing new metrical experiments and forms. Barclay introduces the ecologue, and Wyatt and Surrey the sonnet. A striking feature is the decay of Scottish poetry, which does not revive until the 18th century. The drama gradually supersedes the old metrical romance. The miracle and morality play give way to the interlude, and [Pg 125]later to tragedy and comedy proper. Prose is chiefly concerned with religious and historical topics. There is a marked decay in the influence of Latin models, and some tentative attempts to develop native qualities. The bases of all our four prose styles are laid in this period.

[Pg 126]

Part II.—The Elizabethans (1579-1630).

Forces at Work.—An age of expansion, geographically and mentally. England becomes a power of the first rank, and her new position in the world of affairs is emphasised by the glorious victory of 1588, and the achievements of her explorers, adventures, and business men. The influx of new ideas from the east, and the material wealth from the west, overshadow the old religious quarrels, and the union of Scotland and England helped to settle dynastic problems for a time. The new commercial developments, however, raised the position of the middle classes, and the reign of James I. is mainly a struggle for economic power on their part and the “divine right of kings” idea on the part of the crown.

Literary Features.—The age is characterised by its revolt against tradition. Despite the new interest in the classics, translations and imitations are rendered in a remarkably free spirit. All borrowings are remoulded and re-fashioned, and given a character native to themselves. The language, in spite of the introduction of a host of foreign words, emerges tempered and polished, and there is a remarkable output in all forms of literature. The age is a quest for romance and adventure, and nowhere does this spirit show itself so well as in literature. The drama makes a wonderful leap into maturity; poetry blossoms forth in great and original beauty. Prose attains a first-rate position, steadily developing through the “conceits” of Euphuism to the splendid models of Bacon and Hooker. The novel only remains in its infancy, as blank verse and metrical facility still overshadow the glorious prose weapon in the course of development.

The chief poetic forms in use (stated in the order of their popularity) were the lyric and the sonnet, the descriptive and narrative poem, from pure description to allegory and pastoral; the religious, satirical and didactic poem. The drama reaches its summation between 1595 and 1615, and begins to decline with Jonson. After Shakespeare the pre-eminence of tragedy is challenged by light comedy, while the masque has a brief but glorious run from Jonson to Milton. In prose we have the [Pg 127]remarkable vogue of the “character sketch,” developing into the regular essay with Bacon, while the prose romance, a host of miscellaneous pamphlets, theological writings, sermons translations, travels, and the remarkable “Anatomy of Melancholy” all serve to form the foundation of many important groups of the future.

TEST PAPER—1500-1630.

“Drink to me only with thine eyes.”

“Dost thou think because thou art virtuous

There shall be no more cakes and ale.”

“There is a garden in her face

Where roses and white lilies blow.”

“Into the breast which gave the rose

Shall I with shuddering fall.”

“We mark when we hit but rarely when we miss.”

“Since there’s no help, come let us kiss and part.”

“Was this the face that launched a thousand ships.”

“He that plots to be the only figure among ciphers

Is in danger of becoming the decay of a whole age.”

Lesson 3 (1630-1746).

Part I.—Age of Milton (1630-1660).

Forces at Work.—The national unity of the Elizabethan age changes to one of internal strife and dissension. The struggle between the doctrine of the “divine right of kings” and civil liberty becomes most acute, and after the failure of the Long Parliament the country is involved in civil war. The defeat of the Royalists and the rise of the Puritans changes the conflict to one of civil and religious liberty, in which the latter gains a temporary triumph. The pendulum of feeling sweeps violently back again soon after Cromwell’s death.

Literary Features.—The clash of parties is deeply reflected in the literature of the times. The unsettled state of affairs results in a smaller output of poetry, and prose assumes a fierce and disputatious character. Milton dominates the period, and with this exception, the fashion is towards shorter poems with more fancy and less fervour, as witness the metaphysical lyric and its frequent leaps into remote fancy and absurdity. [Pg 130]The Elizabethan adventurous spirit has gone; a pensive and often melancholy attitude takes its place. The religious lyric is the only form showing signs of real exaltation: the love lyric, the ode, the narrative and descriptive poem all tend towards artificiality. The classic emphasis on form steadily develops. The heroic couplet begins its long reign, and except in Milton, blank verse is extremely slipshod. Prose shows a fairly continuous development. The tendency is toward the ornate, but both middle and plain styles are well represented. Narrative prose is small, but the age is famous for its sermons, philosophical, historical, and miscellaneous types. A special development is the journalistic essay. The drama has practically collapsed, the only men of note up to the closing of the theatres in 1642, being Ford, Massinger, Shirley, Suckling, Davenant.

[Pg 131]

Part II.—Age of Dryden (1660-1700).

Forces at Work.—The rigour of the Puritans did not long survive the death of Cromwell. In 1660, the Stuarts were restored and the pendulum swung from restriction to license. The political power of England declined, and the old Stuart tyranny in religion and politics served to keep alive religious and political factions. In 1688, James II. fled, to be succeeded by William and Mary. A new era of constitutional monarchy, of civil and religious freedom, of decency in social life resulted, and England’s position in European affairs rose once more. These conditions were strikingly reflected in the literature of the times. After 1688, literature emphasises the political rather than the religious side of affairs.

Literary Features.—The Elizabethan romantic spirit is completely spent. The new spirit is all for restraint and convention. Note the imitation of Latin models in poetry, and French models in comedy; the combination of French and classical models in producing the new “heroic play,” and the growth of the “correct school.” As in the previous age one figure towers over all the rest. Outside the work of Dryden the age is poor in ode, lyric, and narrative poetry, but satirical verse shows great development. The use of the heroic couplet spreads throughout poetry and drama; blank verse is very rare and very slipshod; while the lyric still follows the artificial Caroline tradition. Drama has a new lease of life; French example is developing the new play of “Manners” of a very licentious character. Prose is not very great in bulk, but it shows a tendency towards a plain and forcible style. The new “Royal Society,” with its demand for clearness of expression had much to do with the new prose. The ornate style of the previous age has but one great exponent: Burnet.

Part III.—Age of Pope (1700-1740).

Forces at Work.—Under Anne the chief influences which left their mark on literature were the War of the Spanish succession, the rise of political parties, the Act of Settlement and the new study of social and industrial conditions. Under George I. history is largely Whig politics and the development of English trade. Political life was corrupt and cynical and social outlook materialistic. The year 1714, was the culminating point of the strife between Whigs and Tories. The accession of the House of Hanover was a triumph for the Low Church and the middle classes generally.

[Pg 133]

Literary Features.—The age is chiefly one of development in prose style. The tendency in poetry is all towards convention and polish rather than fervour and freedom. Under Pope and his school the heroic couplet reaches its climax as a weapon of criticism and satire, and is often no more than rhymed prose. The political strife influenced literature in several ways: (a) it unloosed an avalanche of pamphlets and developed a virulent prose style, (b) assisted in the formation of those clubs and coffee houses which were to have so great an influence on the essay, (c) produced a swarm of party periodicals and literary journals, (d) helped to create an increased reading public and led to the development of the new publishing houses and the race of hack writers of “Grub Street.”

TEST PAPER (1630-1745).

“Words are wise men’s counters.”

“Stone walls do not a prison make.”

“Her feet beneath her petticoat

Like little mice stole in and out.”

“A little learning is a dangerous thing.”

[Pg 135]

“Still amorous and fond and billing

Like Philip and Mary on a shilling.”

“The proper study of mankind is man.”

“Tis not in mortals to command success,

But well do more, Sempronius, we’ll deserve it.”

“Man is a noble animal, splendid in ashes and pompous in the grave.”

Lesson 4 (1745-1832).

Part I.—Age of Johnson (1745-1798).

Forces at Work.—The age is one of rapid and vigorous growth in science and speculation. Note particularly the influence of the “encyclopedists” and the French “salons.” In politics, England is developing a strong imperialistic tendency, and her wealth and possessions are growing apace. Whig and Tory still carry on the party feud, but with less animosity until the loss of the American colonies and the outbreak of the French Revolution. Philosophy is largely sceptical and official religion latitudinarian, but there is a growing feeling towards evangelism. Note the rise of Wesleyanism, the growing moral sense, the struggle for the freedom of the press, the movement towards prison reform and abolition of the slave trade, and also the beginnings of industrialism. Note above all the tendency towards naturalism, the new interest in man and his place in nature, and the growing feeling for the lower classes long before the French Revolution took place.

Literary Features.—In literature the tendencies are conflicting. The rapid growth of science and speculative thought is in favour of critical prose, but it also serves poetry by challenging the received ideas. Classicism is still a power with Johnson and his school, but there is a growing movement towards naturalism. The new spirit gradually led to the following changes. In poetry, a return to natural scenes in preference to the artificial pastoral pictures; a revolt against formal measures and a renewed interest in old Ballads and in the Middle Ages. In philosophy, to a great deal of theorising [Pg 136]as to man’s place in the world around, and in history to a new critical school. In the novel we have realism side by side with sentimentalism, and in the latter years weird romance cheek by jowl with the philosophical novel and the didactic tale of manners. The drama is in a transition stage; the metrical play is giving way to the prose drama; tragedy is practically non-existent and comedy is only rescued from oblivion by two great names. In miscellaneous prose, letter-writing has become popular, and the periodical essay is becoming more literary and less political.

(a) American Literature.

(b) English Literature

Part II.—Age of Wordsworth (1798-1832).

Forces at Work.—Note the influence of German thought, the effects of the French Revolution and of the War between England and France, 1793-1815. Also the attitude of the English liberals to the French Republic and the difference between the older revolutionary poets such as Wordsworth and the younger such as Shelley. Equally important are the effects of the industrial revolution, the congregation of people in towns and the growing demand for political and social measures ending in the Reform Bill. Note also the War of 1812, and the emergence of American literature proper.

Literary Features.—Literature is marked by a remarkable activity and success in all forms except the drama. Here nothing better could be done than low comedy, and the unsuccessful poetic tragedy of Byron and others. Poetry is exceedingly fertile. The return to Nature heralded in the previous age, and the new interest in the Middle Ages, comes to full fruition, while the growing philosophical spirit demands more than a mere metrical facility and sympathetic observation. All nature is the field, and the meaning thereof the quest. No new metrical forms are in vogue, but the new verse is marked by a wider range of subject, a freshness of treatment, and a simplicity of style. In the novel we have the full development of the historical and domestic types, and the introduction [Pg 139]of the hybrid “society” novel. A tremendous advance takes place in the critical and miscellaneous essay. The vogue of these and of the political essay is seen in the number of new magazines and newspapers. Prose tends towards the middle style, but all kinds are represented from plain Cobbett to fervid De Quincey. Letter writers, literary biography and satire hold minor positions, but by no means negligible ones, while history and other forms of research are well represented.

(a) American Literature.

(b) English Literature.

TEST PAPER. (1745-1832).

“O Sleep it is a gentle thing.”

“How wonderful is Death,

Death and his brother, Sleep.”

“Where’er we tread, t’is haunted holy ground.”

“The world is a comedy to those that think,

A tragedy to those who feel.”

“The man recovered of the bite,

The dog it was that died.”

[Pg 142]

“Knowledge is of two kinds. We know a subject ourselves, or we know where we can find information on it.”

“The child is father to the man.”

“I stood tip-toe on a little hill.”

“Here’s to the maiden of bashful fifteen,

Here’s to the widow of fifty.”

“Nobody is on my side.... Nobody feels for my poor nerves.”

Lesson 5 (1832-1920).

Part I.—The Age of Tennyson (1832-1870).

Forces at Work.—This was an age of rapid change, and many events call for remark. Note especially the transcendental movement and its effects in England and America, the spread of democratic government, the raise of nationalism in Europe and its results on English poetry, the deep feeling for the working classes expressed in the Chartists and Christian Socialist movements, the Oxford Movement, the growth of commercial enterprise, the conventional outlook of the middle classes and the succeeding Pre-Raphaelite revolt, the beginnings of popular education and its effect on the reading public, especially in the development of magazines and newspapers, and also the cumulative effect of the new science on poetry, philosophy, history, and general outlook.

Literary Features.—As in the last age literature is abundant, the only weak section being the drama. In poetry and speculation the tendency is away from the hopeful expectations of the revolutionaries. Doubt and often despair is the note commonly struck. The old foundations are being undermined and man is seen to be not the easily perfectible animal he was thought to be. In work of a less philosophical character, the increased material prosperity of the middle classes tends towards conventionality, and the renewed interest in the past to imitative forms. The beginnings of the revolt occur in the fifties but it does not fully realise itself until the next period. In addition to the meditative element, narrative and lyric poetry are well represented. The most important event is the [Pg 143]rise of the novel to the first place among literary forms. One must also notice the beginnings of the short story, the development of the literary lecture, and the popularity of the long essay, the new literary criticism and critical biography, and the rise of the scientific treatise to real literary rank. History is still chiefly “literary,” but there are tentative attempts at a philosophy of history and the beginnings of an application of scientific method to history.

American Literature (1830-1865).

Later Victorian and Georgian Age (1870-1920).

Forces at Work.—Amidst ever increasing complexity one may briefly note (a) The influence of British imperialism and commercialism, the development of dominion literature, and the Celtic Revival partly due to the frustration of Irish nationalism; (b) the rapid development of industry and the resulting increase in production and population; (c) the growth of trade unionism, the widening rift between classes and masses, and the resulting emphasis in literature on political and social abuses; (d) realisation of a national Education Act, its further development, and the subsequent growth of popular literature and of journalism; (e) the spread of the scientific spirit and its effects in heightening a critical and analytical attitude; (f) the influences from France, Russia, and Scandinavia with their trend towards crude or impressionistic realism and psychological analysis.

[Pg 146]

Literary Features.—The complexity of the age favoured many attitudes besides realism and analysis. In poetry one may range from romantic lyric or narrative to “satires of circumstance” or “stage-door flashlights,” while the feeling towards new models is shown not only in choice and treatment of subject but in the wide experimentation in new forms of verse. The drama in its first stage is limited to romantic comedy, but after Ibsen it becomes realistic and often satirical. The novel rises to be the chief instrument of public expression, and amidst the vast output, one may note the steady stream of romantic, realistic, and propaganda novels, while the short story achieves a triumph in itself. Miscellaneous prose writers are prolific; the growth of journalism tends to shorten the literary and critical essay, but the lengthy literary biography has still many adherents. A prominent class is the historical, philosophical and scientific treatise, and with the rise of popular education children’s literature achieves a special place. In poetry, style ranges from florid Swinburne and ornate Thompson to the delicate silver of Bridges, while in prose there are masters in every style.

Later Victorian and Georgian Age (1870-1920).

TEST PAPER (1832-1920)

Text Books Required.

Lesson 1.

Library and Museum Legislation.

The first part of this section must be carefully studied and I advise all students to thoroughly understand Sanderson’s “Library Law.” It is essential to possess a detailed knowledge of the English, Scottish and Irish Acts of Parliament relating to Public Libraries and Museums. The Public Libraries Act, 1919, the Public Libraries (Scotland) Act, 1920, The Public Libraries (Ireland) Act, 1920, The Public Libraries (Northern Ireland) Act, 1924 and the Irish Free State Local Government Act, 1925 must be carefully read, and students should keep to British legislation until able to say exactly what may be done under the Acts and able to give dates and title of the Acts for [Pg 151]particular powers. Note particularly Irish legislation (Sanderson, pp. 40-41). In conjunction with Sanderson’s work read the reports issued by the Carnegie United Kingdom Trustees. They include the Annual Reports from 1914 to date. Library provision and policy, by W. G. S. Adams, 1915. Proceedings of the Carnegie Rural Library Conference, 1920. Stirling Conference Report: Extension to Burgh and Parish Library areas, 1923. The Public Library System of Great Britain and Ireland (1921-1923), 1924, and the County Library Conference, 1924.

Having obtained a thorough grounding from the above authorities the Reading List may now be commenced. For criticism on the 1919 Act consult the L.A. Vol. 15, 1920-21, pp. 5-7; 118-124; 135-137. L.A.R. Vol. 21, 1919, pp. 333-338 (Scotland), and L.W. Vol. 22, 1919-1926, pp. 330-333.

For county rural libraries Gray’s County library systems, and Macleod’s County rural libraries covers all the ground necessary to the student.

Reading List.

Questions:

Lesson 2.

Committee, Finance, Staff.

Possessing a good knowledge of the powers conferred by the Acts the student must now pay special attention to the powers and duties of Library Committees; committee routine, accounts, and the provisions for loans and rates. Take particular care that the permissive and compulsory powers are thoroughly understood. Audit, annual budgets and financial factors affecting the buildings, books, salaries, etc., of the library services should be carefully considered and definite decisions and figures memorised. The qualifications and duties of librarians and assistants, and a knowledge of the facilities available for the training of assistants, both in England and America is also necessary. The statistics of our large public libraries relating to finance, etc., as given in the Librarian’s Guide and the Carnegie United Kingdom Trustee reports should be compared and studied.

Reading List.

[Pg 155]

Questions.

Lesson 3.

Buildings and Fittings.

This lesson is intended to enable the student to obtain a thorough grasp of the theory and principles of library architecture. The class of library required, its scope and size, the amount of money available, the environment, experience of the librarian and the method of administration intended are all factors that require careful consideration when planning a new library building. Great care must also be taken in selecting or accepting a site. Full factors in the planning of the various departments, together with the correct type of fittings and furniture, should be known to all students. I advise students to visit as many libraries as possible that are organised and administered on the most modern method of library science and to compare them. The factors on population in relation to buildings, spacing and cubical contents required for planning, and the miscellaneous percentages pertaining to the organisation of a library service found on pages 165-8 should be practised and memorised. The Builder should be looked through for specifications and competitions and these [Pg 156]should be compared with those suggested by Champneys, Soule, Marks and others. The influence of the “open access” method of administration on planning, fittings and furniture must never be overlooked.

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 4.

Book-buying and Accession Methods.

A knowledge of book purchase and accession methods is necessary in organising and administering a library service. The sources of supply, and the names of the different [Pg 158]classes of publishers and booksellers should be known to all students. The steps to be taken in purchasing, say, 10,000 volumes, and what classes of books to buy second-hand should be carefully considered. Get acquainted with the methods of treating donations, and the principles governing the replacement of withdrawals should be known. Constant revision of stock is necessary in all libraries and advantage should be taken of the special opportunity which is presented whenever a new catalogue is contemplated. Note the difference between “reprints” and “new editions.” The recognised rules and principles on what to withdraw or discard should be carefully read.

Reading List.

Questions.

Lesson 5.

Rules and Regulations.

The popularity of a public library used to be conditioned by its rules and regulations, but during recent years utility has taken the place of hard and fast rules. The student should read the rules of early libraries, understand their principles and compare them with present day rules. The legal aspect of all sides of the library service must also be known and what powers are available for enforcement of penalties, etc. The number of hours the different departments are open to the public, holiday opening, duration of vacation for the staffs, age limits to Juvenile and Senior departments, periods of loans, etc., should be known to all assistants who wish to become qualified and efficient in their work.

[Pg 160]

Reading List.

Questions.

TEST EXAMINATION.

FACTORS AND NOTES RELATING TO LIBRARY AND MUSEUM LEGISLATION, ORGANISATION AND EQUIPMENT.

Principal Acts of Parliament affecting Public Libraries.

• 1843—Scientific Societies Exemption Act.
• 1855—Public Libraries (Ireland) Act.
• 1861—Malicious Injuries to Property Consolidation and Amendment (England and Ireland) Act.
• 1875—Public Health Act.
• 1877—Public Libraries Amendment (Ireland) Act.
• 1885—Public Libraries (Ireland) Act.
• 1887—Public Libraries Consolidation (Scotland) Act.
• 1887—Public Libraries Amendment and Consolidation (Scotland) Act.
• 1891—Museums and Gymnasiums Act.
• 1892—Public Libraries Consolidation and Amendment Act.
• 1893—Public Libraries Amendment Act.
• 1894—Public Libraries Amendment and Consolidation (Scotland) Act.
• [Pg 163] 1894—Public Libraries Amendment (Ireland) Act.
• 1894—Local Government Act (England and Wales).
• 1898—Libraries Offences Act.
• 1899—Public Libraries Amendment (Scotland) Act.
• 1899—Local Government Act (Metropolitan Boroughs).
• 1901—Public Libraries Museums and Gymnasiums Amendment Act.
• 1902—Public Libraries Amendment (Ireland) Act.
• 1911—Public Libraries (Ireland) Act.
• 1918—Education Act.
• 1919—Public Libraries Act.
• 1920—Public Libraries (Scotland) Act.
• 1920—Public Libraries (Ireland) Act.
• 1920—Blind Persons Act.
• 1924—Public Libraries Act (Northern Ireland).
• 1925—Irish Free State Local Government Act.

First Towns in Great Britain and Ireland to Adopt the Public Libraries Act.

• 1848—Warrington.
• 1849—Salford.
• 1850—Brighton, Norwich.
• 1851—Winchester.
• 1852—Bolton, Liverpool, Manchester, Oxford.
• 1853—Airdrie, Cambridge, Ipswich, Sheffield.
• 1855—Hertford, Maidstone.
• 1856—Birkenhead, Dundalk, Westminster.
• 1857—Leamington, Walsall.
• 1858—Canterbury.

Committees.

Most of the Committees are composed partly of the members of the local Council and partly of co-opted members who are not on the Council, the Council generally being represented by 66%, with the exception of Scotland, where Committees are, by law, half and half. The average constitution of a committee is 16 but some range from 6 to 40.

[Pg 164]

Loans.

The Ministry of Health determine the period for which sums of money for particular purposes may be borrowed. The periods usually are: —

• For sites or lands 65 or 50 years.
• For buildings (with fixtures), 30 years.
• For books, 10 years.
• For furniture (movable only), 10 years.

Estimate of Annual Expenditure for British Municipal Libraries, with and without Loans.

[Pg 165]

Staff.

The number of librarians and assistants employed in British Municipal Libraries is considerably over 4,000. The percentage of males is 55%. Our largest staffs are in Liverpool and Glasgow libraries (over 200 each) followed by Manchester and Birmingham with over 150 and 100 respectively. Bradford, Bristol, Cardiff, Leeds, have each over 50 staff, and Bolton, Brighton, Edinburgh, Newcastle-on-Tyne and Sheffield have staffs ranging from 30 to 50.

Staff Hours.

The average number of hours worked by the staffs in our larger libraries is 42 weekly.

Miscellaneous Percentages pertaining to the Organization of a Library Service.

When a town has adopted the Public Libraries Acts it is possible, by taking the population as a basis, to form an idea of the requirements necessary to meet the demands that will probably be made upon the service.

A careful survey of the statistics of over 500 British Municipal Libraries results in the following figures. The total percentage of inhabitants who will make use of the Lending Department is 8%; the Reference Department, ¼%; and the Reading Room, 1¼%.

As an example of the working of these percentages for a town of 100,000 inhabitants the following results are obtained:—

The Lending Department must cater for 8% (8,000) of the population. We can assume that each borrower will read 28 books per annum. Thus we would have an annual issue of 224,000. If we assume that the Department is open 307 days in the year we would have a daily average of 730. The Library would be open 11 to 12 hours daily giving us an hourly average of from 60 to 66. Experience has proved that [Pg 166]more borrowers are present at one time in the evenings and if we allow 40% extra to the hourly average attendance we get the number present of from 84 to 92. By allowing 25 square feet for each reader, the total floor space required would be from 2,100 to 2,300 square feet; or, an area 55 feet by 40 feet would admirably meet these requirements.

Reference Library.

¼% (250) of the population will use the Reference Department daily. Using the above factors we would have an hourly average attendance of 20, and allowing for crowded periods and 25 square feet for each reader we would require an area of 700 square feet; or, a room 28 feet by 25 feet.

Reading Room.

1¼% (1,250) of the population will make use of the Reading Room daily. Using the given factors we would have to provide accommodation for 144 readers present at one time. Allow 18 square feet for each reader, and we require an area of 2,592 square feet; or a room about 60 feet by 44 feet.

Juvenile Department.

About 500 square feet will be ample accommodation for this Department in a town of this size.

Lecture Rooms.

Attendances vary so much here that it is impossible to secure reliable figures. For a popular lecture room in a town of 100,000 inhabitants upwards of 400 would have to be accommodated, and allowing 7 square feet for each person including platform, gangway, etc., we would require an area of 2,800 square feet; or, a room 40 feet by 70 feet.

Furniture and Fittings.

The greater part of the fittings and furniture of public libraries are made of wood. Oak is the kind most used, but walnut and mahogany are very satisfactory for book-cases, tables and card cabinets.

[Pg 167]

Book Cases.

The chief requirements of book-shelving are accessibility and adjustability. The best material for book-stacks is undoubtedly fumed oak. An oak book-stack 10 feet 10 inches in length, 1 foot 4 inches in breadth and 6 feet 10 inches in height containing shelves 3 feet 6 inches in length, 7 inches in width and 1 inch in depth is an ideal stack for an open-access Lending Library. This stack fitted with Tonks’ fittings, the metal studs being about ¾ inch apart, contains 7 shelves to the tier. For Lending Library purposes we can estimate that nine books will take one foot of shelf space, and each of the shelves will carry thirty books, therefore 7 shelves or one tier will accommodate 210 books, 3 tiers, or one bay will take 630 books and the complete stack will hold 1,260 volumes. If we take 1,250 as an average for each stack we can work out any problem arising if we know the number of books. For Reference Libraries 8 books to the foot is the usual run. The shelves are 9 inches apart and the top shelf 6 feet from the floor and the bottom shelf 1 foot from the floor.

Iron and steel book-stacks, standard size, for “closed” libraries or for books accessible only to the staff are generally 7 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 2 inches, by 15 inches, which may be joined (generally in bays of three) together. Standard reference book-stacks are 7 feet 6 inches, by 3 feet 2 inches, by 18 inches. Special cases must be provided for large books. For detailed particulars of shelving see Brown’s “Manual of library economy,” 1907 edition, Sections 139-150, and 1919 edition, Sections 143-158; Champney’s “Public Libraries,” pp. 30-39; Brown and others—“Open-access Libraries.”

Reading Tables.

Reading-room Tables should be made of oak, and for adults they should be 2 feet 6 inches high, and the breadth, where both sides are used by readers should not be less than 3 feet. Each reader should be allowed 2 feet 6 inches. Tables should never be longer than 7 feet 6 inches. Where there is sufficient space tables 5 feet long and 3 feet in breadth are the best. If a sloping top is required a fillet should be placed at the bottom to prevent papers slipping off. No more than 4 to 6 readers should be accommodated at each table.

[Pg 168]

Newspaper Reading Slopes.

A projecting brass rail, upon which readers may rest their arms, should always be fixed at the bottom of the slope. About 4 feet run should be allowed for each paper when possible, but 3 feet 6 inches will do if space is limited. The usual height of wall slopes is 3 feet, from the floor to the bottom of the slope, and 5 feet from the floor to the title plate, which should take the form of movable boards fitted into brass brackets and placed at the top of the slope in the centre of the newspaper. The bottom of the slope should be 1 foot 3 inches from the wall. There are several kinds of brass screw clips for fastening the newspapers to the stands, but revolving holders should be used for illustrated papers.

Reading Room Chairs.

Arm-chairs are to be preferred to any others. The height of the seat should be 1 foot 4 inches except for juvenile readers (when the height will range from 12 inches for children 5-9 years of age, with an additional inch for every four years up to 21 years of age).

“Open-access” Enclosure.

The lending library counter in an open-access library should be 3 feet high and 2 feet wide and the minimum area for the enclosure should be 8 feet by 8 feet for the smaller libraries and a minimum of 10 feet by 10 feet for libraries registering a daily issue of over 1,000 volumes. For detailed kinds of barriers, latches, etc., see Brown’s “Manual of library economy,” 1907 edition, Sections 128-129; 1919 edition, Sections 131-136; and Brown and others “Open-access libraries.”

Miscellaneous.

Gangways between double reading tables, with movable chairs should be at least 6 feet. Gangways down the sides of centre of a room should be 7 feet. Space between each book, stack in a closed library should be a minimum of 4 feet and in an open-access library a minimum of 6 feet.

In planning buildings 18 to 24 inches should be allowed for external walls, and 6 to 9 inches for internal walls.

Text Books Required.

Lesson 1.

General Policy, Administration and Arrangement of Chief Departments.

In conjunction with the study of matters appertaining to the administration of libraries, the student will find that a policy of visiting as many libraries as possible will prove to be of material assistance in demonstrating the comparative value of the various details of arrangement, equipment, service, etc.

Note carefully the points taken into consideration in planning the interior arrangement of the various departments, paying special attention to the essential requirements with regard to accommodation. (Read carefully the factors on pages 165-168).

[Pg 170]

Several matters are to be taken into consideration in deciding the best means of providing library facilities, and the functions and methods of administering branch libraries, delivery stations, and travelling libraries require studious attention.

The provision of newsrooms is sometimes criticised as unnecessary. Go fully into the question, considering their purpose, cost, value, etc. Their planning and arrangement, as also of magazine rooms, govern in a large measure their success, and should be studied.

The passing of the “1919 Act” has resulted in the rapid establishment of County Libraries, and introduced new problems in library policy. These will become more acute and consequently require increasing attention during coming years as the County Library systems develop. The loss of efficiency due to lack of co-operation will become more accentuated until means for the latter are provided. Various suggestions have already been made and these should receive careful consideration when making the necessary survey of the whole question.

Many libraries have adopted a policy of centralising certain branches of administrative work, such as cataloguing, classification, etc. Give full attention to this and consider in what circumstances and to what extent this practice can be advantageously adopted.

Reading List.

General.

Branch Libraries, Delivery Stations, Travelling Libraries.

Rural Libraries.

Newsrooms. Magazine Rooms.

Questions.

Lesson 2.

Special Departments.

The several departments of which an up-to-date library is composed each have their own peculiar problems, all of which are incapable of satisfactory solution without special consideration.

Library work with children is growing in extent and importance, and librarians of the immediate future may find this branch of their many-sided activities requiring their first attention. Note the special provision of lectures, story-hours, exhibitions, etc., and the special points to be borne in mind during the planning, equipment and arrangement of children’s rooms.

The section dealing with children’s libraries in the appended reading list will require more time than many students are able to spare. In such cases Sayers’s “Children’s Library” should be read first, supplemented by the shorter articles.

Consider also the best methods of co-operation between libraries and schools.

The adolescent question is one of the constantly recurring problems which have exercised the minds of librarians for a number of years. With regard to the fact that the adolescent reader requires special attention, opinions may be said to be just as unanimous as they are divided in deciding the form in which that special attention is to be given, hence the necessity for fully considering the suggestions which have been made towards a solution.

A special effort should be made to make the local collection as complete as possible. Ascertain the best methods of storing and making its contents available, and note what should be included in it.

[Pg 174] Increased activity is being shown in meeting business and commercial requirements. These vary according to locality, but every effort should be made to ascertain what has been accomplished in the large centres—Bolton, Bristol, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, etc., where a special feature has been made of this work. Obtain if possible, the handbooks issued by these towns describing their commercial libraries.

In connection with the provision of music in libraries some rather novel suggestions have been put forward, e.g., the use of gramophones, wireless, etc. These proposals should receive consideration, and the replies and views expressed while they have been under discussion should be noted.

Study the pros and cons of the policy of providing separate Ladies’ Room and Students’ Rooms, and their respective requirements in equipment, arrangement, supervision, etc.

Attention must be given to the necessary procedure in obtaining literature for blind readers, noting specially the sources of supply.

Reading List.

Lending Departments (General).

Children’s Libraries (see also pp. 41-44.)

School Libraries.

Local Collections. Special Collections. (See also pp. 47-50).

Commercial and Technical Libraries (see also pp. 46-47.)

Music Department.

Ladies’ Rooms. Students’ Rooms.

Books for the Blind.

Questions.

Lesson 3.

Aids To Readers.

If there is any dividing line in the duties of a librarian, it surely falls just when a suitable building has been erected and an adequate stock, carefully classified and catalogued, has been provided. From this point there is a good deal of what, perhaps, may be termed propaganda work to be undertaken. The ideal library should be the centre of all literary activity [Pg 179]within the locality, but before this stage is reached advantage must be taken of every possible opportunity to reach and enrol those lukewarm citizens who are to be found in every locality.

After the necessary attention has been paid to the ground covered in this lesson, the student will find enjoyable, and certainly beneficial, the task of compiling a list of all methods of popularising and increasing the use of a library. If succeeding in contributing some new and practicable suggestion, something solid will have been contributed to library science.

A thoroughly efficient Reference Department cannot fail to render first-class service to any community, but it must be remembered that the very nature of reference work renders compulsory a high state of efficiency. A comparison of the duties of reference and lending staffs will assist one to visualise the special requirements of the department more clearly. In surveying the various reference duties, consider the advisability of allowing certain books to be taken out on loan, the extent to which you would allow access to the stock, the disposition of the various classes, and make a special note of the books which are essential for the quick-reference section (see page 72). Note also the means (indexing, etc.) necessary to render all information immediately accessible.

Useful work is done in many places by Information Bureaux. Note the information these are expected to supply, the preparation necessary to equip them for the purpose they serve, and their possible development.

The success of a series of lectures depends chiefly on their proper organization. See what arrangements are essential to their success, and the best methods of ensuring that the interest created results in increased use being made of the library. University Extension and other movements, by wise co-operation, can serve the library in this respect.

Study the various points in connection with the formation of Reading Circles, and the efforts required in order to guarantee their retention as a live factor contributing to the success of the library.

[Pg 180] The Central Library for Students renders assistance to libraries. Study the nature of this, the conditions and the potentiality of the Library as the centre of a more ambitious scheme of a national reservoir library for the distribution of certain classes of books.

Consider the utility of the Bulletin, the information it should contain, the policy of including advertisements to defray cost, and the various points in connection with its production. Several libraries issue bulletins (see page 111). If possible, obtain copies of these.

Up to the present the usual publicity methods have not been called to the service of the library to the same extent in England as in America. View the question from all aspects, note what is at present being done by various libraries, and consider the numerous suggestions which have been made for the expansion of this form of activity.

Note the importance of good shelf and stack guiding as aids to readers. (See pages 84-5 and read the articles given under the names of Coutts, Savage and Stewart.)

Reading List.

General.

[Pg 181]

Reference Work.

Information Bureaux.

Lectures.

Reading Circles.

Exhibitions.

Central Library for Students.

Library Magazines, Book Lists, etc.

Publicity.

Questions.

Lesson 4.

Bookbinding. Stationery. Printing.

All assistants should be thoroughly familiar, not merely with the various forms used in their own library, but with the several variations which are used in others. Study methods of storing stationery, recording supplies, and note the means of checking supplies in stock in order to avoid the irritating experience of finding some particular item out of stock when most urgently required.

The necessary procedure, agreements, and arrangements in dealing with the printer, and the checking of proof, should be noted.

Reading List.

Printing.

[Pg 185]

Stationery.

Questions.

Lesson 5.

Routine and Correspondence Details.

Assistants are reminded that no matter how wisely the general policy and administration of a library may be directed, no small measure of its ultimate success is dependent on a scrupulous regard for accuracy in the discharge of the many and varied details which make up the daily routine. The various library duties are so co-ordinated that it is almost impossible to make mistakes singly, and the slightest inaccuracy or inattention to minor details will reduce the efficiency of a library’s service.

Everything appertaining to staff routine, accession methods, replacements, revision of stock, discarding, registration of borrowers, checks on work and readers, charging and filing methods, accounting, statistics, etc., can be done in different ways, but only work based on a careful study and comparison of the various methods can achieve real success.

Reading List.

Accession Methods.

Checks on Work. Time Sheets.

Registration of Borrowers.

Issue Methods.

Storing. Maps. Prints. Pamphlets. Photographic Surveys, Etc.

Statistics. Annual Report.

Miscellaneous Administrative Details.

QUESTIONS.

TEST EXAMINATION.

There are not wanting those who claim as the first and greatest of all libraries that vast and glorious “stone book of nature.” It was by observing the ability of hard substances to leave their impress on those of a softer nature—the means by which this great stone-book was written—that man acquired the art of writing, of recording his opinions and the various incidents of his life and the lives of those around him. In the earliest stages of his progress in this art this was done on the walls of his rough habitations, but later man adopted a more permanent and convenient form on bark, leaves, skin, tablets of clay and like substances.

It was for the preservation of these that “houses of the records” came to be established throughout the countries of the ancient peoples, sometimes as parts of their temples and sometimes as distinct buildings, and it is from these that our modern libraries have evolved.

As a study, the history of libraries only appeals to a small portion of the library profession, therefore, I am not giving special reading lists, but simply a brief outline of the requirements necessary, a select bibliography of the more important works, and the questions one would expect a student to be able to answer should he present himself for examination. For a general idea of primitive libraries Edward Clodd’s “Story of the alphabet” Library of Useful Stories, Richardson’s “Beginnings of libraries,” 1914, and Rawlings’ “Story of books,” 1912 should be read as an introduction to the subject.

Requirements.

Origin, varieties and history of libraries in general. The ancient libraries of Assyria, Babylonia, Chaldea, Egypt, Persia, Greece and Rome. Mediæval libraries and their modern successors—Monastic, Royal and University libraries. Private libraries should also be known, and students must become familiar with the lives of eminent book-collectors from the [Pg 191]earliest times to the present day. Such names as the following should be noted: Benedict; Richard de Bury; Nicholas V.; the Medici Family; Jean Grolier; Sir Thomas Bodley; Gabriel Naudé; Jules Mazarin; Robert Harley; Sir Hans Sloane; J. A. Zaluski; Duke of Roxburghe; Lord Spencer; Lord Crawford; P. Morgan; H. E. Widener.

The principal British libraries are:—

The principal American libraries are:—

The principal European libraries are:—

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY.

SPECIAL LIBRARIES.

Note.—Cannons’ “Bibliography of library economy” [1876-1923]; the “Story of the Nations” and “Countries and Peoples” series, should be consulted for each country.

Great Britain and Ireland.

Bodleian Library, Oxford.

[Pg 196]

British Museum, London.

Cambridge University Library.

Chetham Library, Manchester.

John Rylands Library, Manchester.

London Library.

[Pg 197]

London University Library.

Marsh’s Library, Dublin.

National Library of Ireland.

National Library of Wales.

Sion College Library, London.

France.

Bibliotheque Nationale.

Italy. Vatican Library.

[Pg 198]

Spain. Escorial Library.

United States.

Library of Congress.

Questions.

[Pg 200]